.STUDIES  /: 


Southern  Branch 
of  the 

University  of  California 

Los  Angeles  ) 

Form  L  1 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  belo'w    0 


Rrc-D  MLD 
"^'^^  2  2  1964 

JON  1 1  ,ggf 


Form  L-9-15m-8,'24 


STUDIES       ^" 


IN 


ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 


WITH    LESSONS    IN    LANGUAGE 
AND    RHETORIC 

LOB  ^'[JHB,  "'-OA  L. 

BY 

HARRIET    L.    KEELER 

AND 

EMMA  C.   DAVIS 


Boston 

ALLYN    AND    BACON 
1895 


Copyright,  1891, 
By  HARRIET   L.    KEELER. 


XorfaooB  30rcS3 : 

J.  S.  Gushing  &  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith. 

Boston,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


_       A 


c 


PREFACE. 


The  lessons  of  this  book  have  been  arranged  with  a  view 
to  the  wants  of  those  schools  which  have  composition  as  a 
weekly  exercise  in  their  course  of  study.  Most  of  the  high 
schools  and  private  preparatory  schools  of  the  country  have 
such  courses,  covering  usually  from  three  to  four  years. 
Any  teacher  who  has  attempted  to  teach  composition  in 
these  schools  has  felt  the  need  of  a  book  containing  an 
orderly  succession  of  topics  adapted  to  the  age  and  devel- 
opment of  the  pupils,  together  with  such  lessons  in  lan- 
guage and  rhetoric  as  are  naturally  of  daily  application  in 
their  class  exercises. 

The  book  now  presented  to  the  public  is  the  outcome  of 
a  long  experience  in  teaching  composition  in  the  high 
school  of  the  city  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  and  its  lessons  have 
borne  the  test  of  the  class-room,  not  once  only,  but  scores 
of  times. 

It  is  not  necessary,  nor  will  it  always  be  desirable,  to 
require  each  class  to  write  upon  the  topics  in  precisely 
the  order  indicated  here,  but  in  the  course  of  four  years  all 
these  lessons  will  fall  into  fitting  time  and  place. 

Two  obstacles  lie  in  tlie  way  of  successful  composition 
work.     The  first  and  greatest  is  that  the  pupils  are  rarely 


IV  PREFACE. 

made  to  understand  liow  tliey  are  to  do  what  is  required  of 
them.  Subjects  are  assigned  and  written  exercises  are  ex- 
acted, but  how  these  are  to  be  produced,  after  what  manner 
and  in  what  style,  nobody  knows,  least  of  all  the  youthful 
writers.  As  a  consequence,  reference  books  are  hastily 
consulted,  encyclopaedic  learning  is  crudely  transferred 
from  the  books  to  the  essay,  and  the  completed  product 
is  too  often  absolutely  worthless  for  all  the  ends  for  which 
a  composition  is  written,  since  it  does  not  teach  even 
orderly  and  systematic  compilation. 

The  second  obstacle  is  the  self-consciousness  of  the  pupil. 
Originality  is  a  shy  flower,  and  will  unfold  only  in  a  con- 
genial atmosphere.  One  may  as  well  grasp  a  sea-anemone 
and  expect  it  to  show  its  beauty,  as  ask  a  child  to  write 
from  his  own  experience  when  he  expects  every  sentence  to 
be  dislocated  in  order  to  be  improved.  The  sentences  need 
improvement,  no  doubt,  but  that  improvement  wall  come 
under  the  influence  of  good  models  and  quiet  suggestions. 
The  teacher  of  composition  should  never  forget  that  "  the 
life  is  more  than  meat  and  the  body  than  raiment";  that 
the  spirit  and  thought  of  any  exercise  are  more  than  the 
technical  dress,  and  that  if  the  former  are  developed,  the 
latter  will  not  be  wanting. 

Too  much  attention  cannot  be  given  to  supplying  young 
writers  with  good  models ;  for  by  this  means  they  grasp 
the  idea  of  what  is  expected  of  them,  and  at  the  same 
time  have  before  them  an  ideal  towards  which  they  can 
work.  It  is  hoped  that  the  method  and  plan  of  study  in 
this  book  have  been  made  so  clear  that  teachers  who  find 
the  work  given  not  ample  enough  for  their  needs  can  easily 


PREFACE.  V 

supplement  it  both  in  models  and  lessons,  or  that  pupils 
will  be  able  to  supplement  it  for  themselves,  as  they  are 
encouraged  to  do  throughout  the  book. 

The  extracts  from  the  Works  of  Lowell,  Hawthorne, 
Emerson,  Whittier,  Longfellow,  Holmes,  Thoreau,  Bur- 
roughs, Miss  Jewett,  Miss  Miller,  Miss  Murfree,  and  Miss 
Thomas,  are  used  Avith  the  permission  of,  and  by  special 
arrangement  with,  the  publishers,  Messrs.  Houghton,  Mifiiin 
&  Co. ;  that  from  Wide  Awake,  with  the  permission  of  the 
publishers,  U.  Lothrop  Co. ;  that  from  George  William 
Curtis,  by  the  kind  consent  of  the  author ;  that  from  Emer- 
son's Trees  and  Shrubs  of  Massachusetts  by  the  courtesy 
of  Hon.  John  Lowell ;  that  from  Thomas  Wentworth 
Higginson's  Young  Folks'  History  of  the  United  States  by 
the  kind  permission  of  the  author, 

HARRIET   L.  KEELER. 
Cleveland,  Ohio, 
January,  1892. 


CONTENTS. 


-•o^ 


PAGE 

Chapter  I.    Narrative  Composition 1 

Records  of  Observation.  General  Narration.  Condensa- 
tion of  Long  Stories.  Paraplirase  of  Poems.  Keproduction 
of  Historical  Tales. 


Chapter  II.     The  Use  of  Words 14 

Clianges  in  Words.    Suggestions  upon  the  Use  of  Words. 
Synonyms.     Word.s  frequently  Mispronounced. 


Chapter  HI.     Descriptive  Composition 23 

Descriptions  of  Objects.  General  Descriptions.  Descrip- 
tions of  Persons.  Descriptions  of  the  Way  in  which  Articles 
are  Made. 


Chapter  IV.     Common  Errors  in  the  Use  of  Language 

The  Non-Agreement  of  Subject  and  Predicate.     Errors  in 
the  Use  of  Verb  Tenses.     Errors  in  the  Use  of  Pronouns. 


Chapter  V.     Correspondence 38 

Forms  of  Letters  in  General  Correspondence.  Letters  of 
Friendship.  Notes  of  Ceremony.  Formal  Notes  of  Ceremony. 
Business  and  Official  Letters. 

vii 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 


PASR 

Chapter  VI.    Narration  and  Description  Combined 01 

Anniversary  Days.     Aniplificatii)n  of   Toems.     Imagina- 
tive Stories. 


Chapter  VII.    A  Study  of  Sentences  and  the  Paragraph 68 

Form  and  Slructm'e  of  Sentences.     'J'liu  Taragraph. 

Chapter  VITT.     Narration  and  Description  Combined 71 

Studies  in  Natural  History.  Description  of  Birds.  Sub- 
jects relating  to  Birds.  Poems  relating  to  Birds.  Domestic 
Animals.     Subjects  relating  to  Animals. 

Chapter  IX.     Narration  and  Description  Combined 86 

Study  of  Trees.  Descriptions  of  Trees.  General  Subjects 
concerning  Trees.  Flowers.  Descriptions  of  Plants.  Sub- 
jects .relating  to  Flowers.     Poems  about  Flowers. 

Chapter  X.     Study  of  Rhetorical  Figures 99 

Figures  Based  on  Comparison.  Figures  Based  on  Substi- 
tution. Additional  Figures.  Study  of  Examples  of  Rhetorical 
Figures. 

Chapter  XI.     Study  of  Authors 107 

Henry  Wadswortli  Longfellow.    Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 

Chapter  XII.     The  Qualities  of  Style 114 

Clearness.    Unity.     Strength.     Harmony.- 

Chapter  XIII.    Plain  Historical  Writing 122 

Study  of  American  Topics. 


CONTENTS.  IX 


Chapter  XIV.    Picturesque  Historical  Writing 128 

Historical    Subjects.      Picturesque    Effect  by  Contrast. 
Picturesque  Effect  by  Suggestion. 


Chapter  XV.     Studies  in  Short  Stories  for  Children 138 


Chapter  XVI.     Versification 142 

Meter.     Scanning.     Writing  of  Jingles.     Classification  of 
Poetry.    Subjects  relating  to  Poetry  and  Poems. 


Chapter  XVII.     Studies  in  Shakespeare 157 

Biogi-aphical  Sketch  of  Shakespeare.  Julius  Ctesar.  A 
Midsummer  'Night's  Dream.  Subjects  relating  to  Shake- 
speare. 


Chapter  XVIII.     Studies  for  Book  Reviews 107 


Chapter  XIX.    Persuasive  Discourse 174 

The  Art  of  Persuasion.  Examples  of  Persuasive  Dis- 
course. Structure  of  Persuasive  Discourse.  Subjects  for 
Persuasive  Discourse. 


Chapter  XX.     Public  Speaking 192 

Principles  governing  Public  Speaking.     Study  of  Selec- 
tions from  Famous  Orations.     Subjects  for  Orations. 


Addenda 


201 


Rules  for  Use  of  Capital  Letters.    Rules  for  the  Marks  of 
Punctuation.     Abbreviations. 


STUDIES 


IN 


EN^GLISH   COMPOSITION. 


-OO^^J^JOO- 


CHAPTER   I. 
J^ARBATIVE   COMPOSITION. 


LESSON  L  — EEOOEDS   OF   OBSERVATION. 

EXERCISE   I.  —  MODEL   FOR    STUDY. 

Pupils  should  read  this  selection  carefully,  two  or  three  times. 

October  16.-  Spent  the  whole  afternoon  in  a  ramble 
to  the  sea-shore.  It  was  a  beautiful,  warm,  sunny  after- 
noon, one  of  the  pleasantest  clays  of  the  whole  year. 
People  were  at  work,  harvesting,  without  their  coal.s. 
Cocks  with  their  flocks  of  hens  were  in  the  grass-fields, 
hunting  grasshoppers,  chasing  them  eagerly  with  out- 
spread wings,  appearing  to  take  much  interest  in  the 
sport  apart  from  the  profit.  Other  hens  were  pecking 
at-4he  ears  of  Indian  corn.  Grasshoppers,  flies,  and  fly- 
ing insects  of  all  sorts  are  more  abundant  in  these  warm 
autumnal  days  than  I  have  seen  them  at  any  other  time. 
Yellow  butterflies  flutter  about  in  the  sunshine,  singly, 

1 


2  STUDIES    IN    ENGLISH    COjNri'OSITION. 

by  pairs  or  more,  and  are  wafted  on  the  gentle  ^ales, 
the  crickets  begin  to  sing  early  in  the  afternoon,  and 
sometimes  a  locust  may  be  heard.  In  some  warm  spots 
there  was  a  pleasant  buzz  of  many  insects.       ' 

Tliis  is  taken  from  Hawthorne's  American  Note-Books.  Observe 
tlie  various  insects  mentioned.  Observe  the  punctuation  of  the 
series  of  adjectives  limiting  aflernonn.  What  is  the  sport,  and 
what  the  profit,  refei-red  to?  The  common  yellow  butterfly  of 
autumn  belongs  to  the  Colias  family.  How  do  crickets  and 
locusts  make  their  song?  To  what  class  of  words  does  buzz 
belong?  What  other  name  has  Indian  corn?  What  other  word 
might  have  been  used  instead  of  gales  f 

EXERCISE   II.  —  MODEL   FOR    STUDY. 
Pupils  should  read  this  selection  carefully,  two  or  three  times. 

There  having  been  a  heavy  rain  yesterday,  a  nest  of 
chimney  swallows  was  washed  down  the  chimney  into 
the  fireplace  of  one  of  the  front  rooms.  My  attention 
was  called  to  them  by  most  obstreperous  twitterings, 
and  looking  behind  the  fireboard,  I  discovered  three 
young  birds  clinging  with  their  feet  against  the  jaml)s, 
looking  at  me  open-mouthed  and  all  clamoring  together 
so  as  quite  to  fill  the  room  with  the  short,  eager,  fi-ight- 
ened  sounds.  The  old  birds,  by  certain  signs  upon  the 
floor  of  the  room,  appeared  to  have  fallen  victims  to  the 
appetite  of  the  cat. 

The  maid  provided  a  basket  with  cotton  wool,  into 
which  the  poor  little  babies  were  put,  and  I  tried  to 
feed  them  with  soaked  bread,  of  which,  however,  they 
did  not  eat  with  much  relish.  I  hunsr  the  basket  out 
of  the  window  in  the  sunshine,  and  upon  looking  in,  an 
hour  after,  found  that  two  of  the  birds  had  escaped. 
The  other  was  much  injured,  and  I  was  not  sorry  when 


NARRATIVE   COMPOSITION.  3 

it  died.     They  were  so  well  grown  that  they  might,  I 
suppose,  have  been  able  to  shift  for  themselves. 

This  also  is  from  Hawthorne's  American  Note-Books.  Observe 
the  punctuation  of  the  series  —  ahorl,  eager,  frightened.  What  is  the 
shape  of  a  swallow's  tail?  AVhat  were  the  signs  which  show'ed 
the  fate  of  the  old  birds?  Is  soaked  bread  good  for  young  birds? 
Observe  in  what  9,n  easy,  simple,  yet  delightful  way,  Hawthorne 
relates  the  most  common,  every-day  occurrences.  The  chai-m 
lies  in  the  simplicity  yet  fulness  of  the  narrative.  Such  a  style 
is  within  the  reach  of  any  one  who  tries  to  acquire  it. 


LIST  OF  SUBJECTS   FOR  RECORDS   OF  OBSERVATION. 

The  Doings  of  a  Flock  of  Sparrows. 

Note  their  manner  of  alighting  like  a  flurry  of  brown  snow- 
flakes.  Their  quick  movements  —  air  of  important  business  — 
gathering  into  groups  of  two  or  three  —  sudden  flight  —  quick 
chirps  —  frequent  quarrels. 

The  Building  of  the  Nest. 

The  season  —  the  time  of  day  —  the  place  —  kind  of  birds  — 
situation  of  nest.  Materials  used  —  where  found  —  how  utilized. 
Different  calls  of  the  birds  to  one  another  —  length  of  time  in 
building. 

Ten  Minutes  at  the  Window. 

You  will  be  astonished  to  find  how  many  things  will  take  place 
in  even  five  minutes.  You  will  have  all  the  material  you  need,  if 
you  note  every  person,  animal,  and  vehicle  that  passes.  Do  not 
merely  mention  them,  but  tell  something  you  observe  about  each. 
Avoid  monotony  of  statement  by  using  variety  of  verbs;  as, 
strolled,  loalked,  lounged,  strayed,  ran,  darted,  lingered,  dasheil, 
trotted,  scampered. 

A  Game  of  Tag. 

Watch  this  or  some  other  children's  game,  and  tell  all  the  inci- 
dents of  it.  The  way  the  different  players  behave  —  disposition  as 
exhibited  in  play  —  kind  of  game  —  how  played  —  how  begun  — 
how  ended. 


4  STUDIES    IN    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

Street  Musicians. 

Almost  any  large  city  will  give  material  for  this  subject,  and  in 
great  variety.  'I'he  oi-gan-grinder,  man  or  woman,  or  both,  some- 
times accompanied  by  children,  sometimes  by  a  monkey.  Bands 
of  players  —  instruments  —  harp,  Castanet,  tambourine,  violin, 
accordion. 

Note. —The  subjects  given  al)ove  are  only  suggestions  of  the  kinds  of 
incidents  that  might  eonie  within  the  observation  of  the  pupils.  In  these 
exercises  one  sliould  try  to  keep  the  spirit  of  Hawthorne's  style,  the 
plain,  simple,  interesting  way  of  telling  little  things.  Whatever  merits  a 
narrative  may  have,  one  it  should  never  lack,  it  should  be  interesting. 


LESSON   IL  — GENERAL  NARRATION. 

EXERCISE    I. MODEL    FOR    STUDY. 

Pupils  should  read  carefully,  then  reproduce  from  memory,  keeping 
as  much  as  possible  the  easy,  simple,  interesting  style. 

One  of  the  chief  pleasures  in  Deephaven  was  our 
housekeeping.  Going  to  market  was  apt  to  use  up  a 
whole  morning.  We  depended  somewhat  upon  supplies 
from  Boston,  but  sometimes  we  used  to  chase  a  butcher 
who  took  a  drive  in  his  old  canvas-topped  cart  when  he 
felt  like  it,  and  as  for  fish,  there  were  always  enough  to 
be  caught,  even  if  we  could  not  buy  any. 

One  morning  Maggie  told  us  that  there  was  nothing 
in  the  house  for  dinner,  and  taking  an  early  start,  we 
went  at  once  down  to  the  store  to  ask  if  the  butcher 
had  been  seen  ;  but  finding  that  he  had  gone  out  deep- 
sea  fishing  for  two  days,  we  strolled  down  to  the  shore 
to  see  if  we  could  find  some  mackerel,  but  as  there  was 
not  a  fisherman  in  sight,  we  concluded  that  we  had  better 
provide  for  ourselves.     So  taking  our  lines,  and  getting 


NARRATIVE   COMPOSITION.  5 

some  clams  for  bait,  we  went  over  to  the  hull  of  an  old 
schooner  which  was  going  to  pieces  alongside  one  of  the 
ruined  wharves.  We  looked  down  the  ruined  hatchway 
into  the  hold,  and  could  see  the  flounders  and  sculpins 
swinnning  about  lazily. 

'*  There  is  that  same  big  flounder  that  we  saw  yester- 
day," said  I  ;  "  I  know  him  because  one  of  his  fins  is 
half  gone.  I  don't  believe  he  can  get  out,  for  the  hole 
in  the  side  of  the  schooner  isn't  very  wide,  and  it  is 
higher  up  than  flounders  ever  swim.  Perhaps  he  came 
in  when  he  was  young,  and  was  too  lazy  to  go  out  until 
he  was  so  large  he  couldn't.  Flounders  alwa3^s  look  so 
lazy,  and  as  if  they  thought  a  great  deal  of  themselves." 
"  I  hope  they  will  think  enough  of  themselves  to  keep 
away  from  my  hook  this  morning,"  said  Kate,  philo- 
sophically, "  and  the  sculpin  too.  I  am  going  to  fish 
for  cunners,  and  keep  my  line  short."  And  she  perched 
herself  on  the  quarter,  baited  her  hook  carefully,  and 
threw  it  over  with  a  clam-shell  to  attract  attention.  I 
went  to  the  rail  at  the  side,  and  we  were  presently  much 
encouraged  by  pulling  up  two  small  cunners,  and  felt 
that  our  prospects  for  dinner  were  excellent.  But  our 
usual  good  luck  seemed  to  desert  us.  The  cunners 
would  either  eat  our  bait  or  keep  away  altogether. 
Kate  at  last  said  we  must  starve  unless  we  could  catch 
the  big  flounder,  and  asked  me  to  drop  my  hook  down 
the  hatchway  ;  but  it  seemed  almost  too  bad  to  destroy 
his  innocent  happiness.  Just  then  we  heard  the  noise 
of  oars,  and  to  our  delight  saw  Captain  Sands  in  his 
dory  just  beyond  tlie  next  wharf.  "Any  luck?"  said 
he  ;  "  s'pose  you  don't  care  anything  about  going  out 
this  morning." 

Selection  from  Deephaven.     Sarah  Orne  Jewett. 


6  STUDIES    IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

LIST  OF  SUBJECTS  FOR   NARRATIVE   COMPOSITION. 

Our  Picnic. 

Narrate  the  incidents  simply  and  accurately  —  amusements  — 
mishaps.  Tell  about  the  weather  —  trees  —  flowers  —  birds.  Tinic 
of  luncheon  —  labor  to  get  it  —  return. 

A  Hunt  for  Wild  Flowers. 

Tell  where  you  went  —  kind  of  flowers  sought  for  —  where  each 
kind  grew  —  date  of  finding  theiu.  Describe  any  unusual  ones  — 
name  some  not  yet  in  blossom  —  any  interesting  fact  or  story  about 
the  flowers  should  be  given.  Read  The  Procession  of  the  Floiuers, 
iu  Out-Door  Papers,  by  Thomas  VV.  Higginson. 

A  Visit  to  the  M ill-Pond. 

Size  —  location  —  depth.  Smooth  water  —  why?  Character  of 
soil 'at  bottom.  Kinds  of  fish  caught  in  the  pond — frogs  —  tad- 
poles—  water  plants  —  trees  about  the  margin.  Little  fish  in 
shallow  water  —  why  ? 

A  Walk  in  the  Woods. 

Note  the  difference  made  by  the  season  in  the  trees  and  flowers. 
Birds  that  were  seen  —  birds'  nests  —  animals  —  flowers.  Coolness 
and  quiet.  Use  and  value  of  woods  —  rapid  disappearance  of  our 
native  forests  —  effect  of  such  disappearance  upon  our  climate. 
Read  A  Forest  Hi/mn,  by  William  C.  Bryant. 

How  We  Went  Nutting. 

Appearance  of  trees  in  autumn.  Kind  of  nuts  sought  for  — 
how  they  were  gathered  —  incidents  of  the  undertaking  —  success 

—  pleasure  of  it.  v  Other  nut-gatherers  beside  man. 

A  Fishing  Excursion. 

To  what  place  —  kind  of  fish  caught  —  size  —  fishing-tackle  used 

—  bait  —  success  or  failure.     Quote  from  The  Complete  A  ngler,  by 
Izaak  Walton. 

Story  of  the  Bird's  Nest  in  the  Apple  Tree. 

Kind  of  birds  that  built  it — date  of  building — time  required 
to  complete  it  —  materials  —  eggs  —  hatching  of  eggs  —  fate  of 
young  birds.     Read  The  Trcujedy  of  the  Nests,  by  John  Burroughs. 


NARRATIVE    COMPOSITION.  ( 

How  We  Camped  Out. 

Who  first  suggested  —  who  organized  —  how  many  in  the  party. 
How  much  planning  was  necessary  —  outfit  —  what  was  forgotten. 
How  expectation  and  realization  compared.  Who  did  the  cook- 
ing.    Amusements  —  mishaps. 

Visit  to  a  Dry  Goods  Store. 

Time  spent  —  people  seen  —  articles  for  sale  —  clerks  —  custom- 
ers —  sunnner  goods  —  winter  goods  —  store  windows. 

One  School  Day. 

Relate  in  proper  order  all  the  different  occupations  of  the  day. 

How  I  Spent  Saturday. 

Narrate  the  events  of  the  day,  telling  the  little  things.  Do  not 
simply  say  you  rose  in  the  morning,  ate  your  breakfast,  worked  or 
played,  as  the  case  may  be ;  but  tell  the  trifles  that  made  up  the 
day's  occupations,  and  make  the  narrative  as  interesting  as  you 
can.     Take  Hawthorne's  Note-Boots  as  a  model. 

Note. — It  is  not  supposed  that  the  notes  under  the  given  subjects  are 
at  all  exhaustive  ;  they  are  simply  to  suggest  a  few  things  which  may  be 
said.  Nor  is  this  intended  as  a  complete  list  of  subjects,  — each  member 
of  the  class  can  doubtless  find  some  one  subject  as  well  adapted  to  him 
as  any  of  these,  —  but  these  indicate  the  type.  The  subjects  may  be 
assigned  by  the  teacher,  or  the  pupils  may  select  for  themselves.  Not 
less  than  two  original  narratives  should  be  written  before  any  other  work 
is  undertaken.  ^ 

SUGGESTIONS    TO    THE   WRITER. 

Use  no  abbreviations  in  written  composition  ;  they  are  permitted 
oidy  in  bills,  legal  documents,  and  statistics.  Especially  avoid  the 
abbreviation  of  and. 

Use  nice  and  about  vei'y  little.  Nice  has  been  used  in  so  many 
meanings  tluit  it  now  expresses  none  accurately.  Exercise  care  to 
make  your  manuscript  look  as  well  as  possible;  dot  your  t's,  cross 
your  t's,  put  a  period  at  the  end  of  all  declarative  sentences ;  never 
omit  the  hyphen  when  a  word  is  divided  at  the  end  of  a  line,  or  a 
caret  when  you  wish  to  supply  a  word  left  out. 

If  you  are  a  poor  speller,  begin  to  train  your  mind  to  retain  the 
pictures  of  words.     Keep  a  dictionary  at  h^/nd,  and  consult  it. 


8  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMrOSlTION. 


EXERCISE   II. — QUICK   WORK   IN   NARRATION. 

Pupils  write  in  class  for  twenty  minutes  upon  the  same  subject, 
then  each  reads  what  he  has  wi'ittcn. 

Each  pupil  takes  a  different  subject  and  writes  for  twenty  min- 
utes, then  each  reads  what  he  has  written. 


LESSON  III.  —  CONDENSATION  OE  LONG  STOEIES. 

EXERCISE  I.  —  ORAL  REPRODUCTION. 

The  pupils  are  to  relate  one  or  more  of  the  following  stories.  This 
exercise,  in  order  to  be  useful,  should  be  brief,  only  the  main 
points  in  the  stories  being  given. 

Selections  from : 

A  Wonder-Book Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 

A  Christinas  Carol Charles  Dickens. 

The  Pilgrim's  Progress John  Bunyan. 

The  Age  of  Fable Thomas  Bulfinch. 

The  Sketch  Book Washington  Irving. 

Tales  from  Shakespeare Charles  and  Mary  Lamb. 

SUGGESTIONS   TO   THE   SPEAKER. 

Stand  erect  when  speaking,  and  stand  still. 

Avoid  excessive  use  of  and.     This  is  a  common  fault. 

Do  not  say  ah  after  words. 

Vary  the  forms  of  your  sentences.  Do  not  leave  a  sentence 
unfinished. 

Never  use  "  says  he  "  for  "  said  he,"  nor  "  I  says,  says  I  "  for  "  I 
said." 

Avoid  the  use  of  rvhy,  noiv,  and  icell,  as  introductory  words  for 
your  sentences. 

The  word  verg  frequently  weakens  an  adjective  instead  of 
strengthening  it. 


NARRATIVE   COMPOSITIONo 


EXERCISE   II.  —  PARAPHRASE   OF  POEMS. 

Pupils  should  read  one  of  these  poems  carefully  and  retell  it  in 

their  own  words. 

King  Robert  of  Sicily Heniy  W.  Longfellow. 

The  Falcon  of  Ser  Federigo Henry  W.  Longfellow. 

The  Legend  Beautiful Henry  W.  Longfellow. 

The  Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin Robert  Bft)wning. 

Herve  Riel Robert  Browning. 

Enoch  Arden Alfred  Tennyson. 

Dora Alfred  Tennyson. 

The  Passing  of  Arthur Alfred  Tennyson. 

Goody  Blake  and  Harry  Gill      ....  William  Wordsworth. 

John  Gilpin's  Ride William  Cowper. 

The  Prisoner  of  Chilian Lord  Byron. 

Rosabelle Sir  Walter  Scott. 

The  Rime  of  the  AncicTit  Mariner  .     .     .  Samuel  T.  Coleridge. 

The  Inchcape  Rock Robert  Southey. 

Horatius Lord  Macaulay. 

The  Battle  of  the  Lake  Regillus  ....  Lord  Macaulay. 

^The  High  Tide  on  the  Coast  of  Lincolnshire  Jean  Ingelow. 

Kallundborg  Church John  G.  Whittier. 

The  Garrison  of  Cape  Ann John  G.  Whittier. 

Rhyme  of  the  Duchess  May Elizabeth  B.  Browning. 

Kit  Carson's  Ride Joaquin  Miller. 

Kentucky  Belle Constance  F.  Woolson. 

Sella  .         W^illiam  Cullen  Bryant. 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  THE  WRITER. 

In  paraphrasing  a  poem  try  to  catch  the  spirit  of  it,  whether  it 
is  heroic,  tragic,  humorous,  or  pathetic.  Be  careful  to  narrate  tlie 
events  in  their  proper  order;  and  in  order  that  you  may  do  this 
easily,  take  mental  note  of  them  when  reading  the  poem. 

Most  of  these  are  dramatic  poems  and  have  some  point  of  cul- 
minating interest ;  in  your  reproduction  take  care  to  bring  the 
interest  to  a  climax. 

Note.  —  There  should  be  at  least  one  oral  and  one  written  exercise  in 
paraphrasing  these  poems.  Among  so  many  it  is  probable  that  at  least 
two  are  within  the  reach  of  each  piiiiil. 


10  STUDIES   IN    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 


LESSON    IV.  —  BEIEF    KEPEODUOTION    OP    HISTORICAL 

TALES. 

EXERCISE   I.  —  MODEL   FOR    RP^PRODUCTION. 

Pupils  should  take  notes  of  the  principal  points  in  the  narrative,  and 
from  these,  either  tell  or  rewrite  the  story  in  their  own  words. 

THE    BOSTON    MASSACRE. 

It  was  now  the  iifth  of  March,  1770.  The  sunset 
music  of  the  British  regiments  was  heard  as  usual 
throughout  the  town.  The  shrill  life  and  rattling  drum 
awoke  the  echoes  in  King  Street,  while  the  last  ray  of 
sunshine  was  lingering  on  the  cupola  of  the  Town 
House.  And  now  all  the  sentinels  were  posted.  One 
of  them  marched  up  and  down  before  the  Custom 
House,  treading  a  short  path  through  the  snow  and 
longfinof  for  the  time  when  he  would  be  dismissed  to 
the  warm  fireside  of  the  guard-room.  Meanwhile,  Cap- 
tain Preston  was  perhaps  sitting  before  the  heartli  of 
the  British  Coffee  House.  In  the  course  of  the  eveninsr 
there  were  two  or  three  slight  commotions,  which  seemed 
to  indicate  that  trouble  was  at  hand.  Small  parties  of 
young  men  stood  at  the  corners  of  the  streets  or  walked 
along  the  narrow  pavements.  Squads  of  soldiers  who 
were  dismissed  from  duty  passed  by  them  shoulder  to 
shoulder,  wdth  the  regular  step  which  they  had  learned 
at  drill.  Whenever  these  encounters  took  place  it 
seemed  to  be  the  object  of  the  young  men  to  treat  the 
soldiers  with  as  much  incivility  as  possible. 

"  Turn  out,  you  lobster-backs !  "  one  would  say. 
"  Crowd  them  off  the  sidewalks ! "  another  w^ould  cry ; 
"  a  redcoat  has  no  right  in  Boston  streets." 

''  O  you  rebel  rascals ! "  perha})s  the  soldiers  would 


NARRATIVE   COMPOSITION.  11 

reply,  glaring  fiercely  at  the  young  men.  "  Some  day  we 
will  make  our  way  through  Boston  streets  at  the  point 
of  the  bayonet." 

Once  or  twice  such  disputes  as  these  brought  on  a 
scuffle,  which  passed  off,  however,  without  attracting 
much  notice.  About  eight  o'clock,  for  some  unknown 
cause,  an  alarm  bell  rang  loudly  and  hurriedly.  Later 
in  the  evening,  not  far  from  nine  o'clock,  several  young 
men  passed  by  the  Town  House  and  walked  down  King 
Street.  The  sentinel  was  still  at  his  post  in  front  of 
the  Custom  House,  pacing  to  and  fro ;  while  as  he 
turned,  a  gleam  of  light  from  some  neighboring  window 
glittered  on  the  barrel  of  his  musket. 

Down  towards  the  Custom  House  came  a  party  of 
wild  young  men.  When  they  drew  near  the  sentinel 
he  halted  on  his  post,  and  cried,  "  Who  goes  there  ?  "  in 
the  gruff  tones  of  a  soldier's  challenge. 

The  young  men,  being  Boston  boys,  felt  as  if  they 
had  a  right  to  walk  their  own  streets  without  being 
accountable  to  a  British  soldier.  They  made  some  rude 
answer  to  the  sentinel.  There  was  a  dispute,  perhaps  a 
scuffle.  Other  soldiers  heard  the  noise  and  ran  to 
assist  their  comrades.  At  the  same  time  many  of  the 
townspeoi^le  rushed  into  King  Street  and  gathered  in  a 
crowd  around  the  Custom  House. 

The  wrongs  and  insults  which  the  people  had  been 
suffering  for  many  months  now  kindled  them  into  a 
rage.  They  threw  snowballs  and  lumps  of  ice  at  the 
soldiers.  As  the  tumult  grew  louder  it  reached  the  ear 
of  Captain  Preston,  the  officer  of  the  day.  He  immedi- 
ately ordered  eight  soldiers  of  the  guard  to  take  their 
muskets  and  follow  him.  They  marched  across  the 
.street,  forcing  their  way  roughly  through  the  crowd, 
and  pricking  the  people  with  their  bayonets. 


12  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

A  gentleniiin  (Henry  Knox,  afterward  general  of 
American  artillery)  caught  Captain  Preston's  arm. 
"  For  Heaven's  sake,  sir,"  he  exclaimed,  "  take  heed 
what  you  do  or  there  will  be  bloodshed." 

"  Stand  aside,"  answered  Captain  Preston  haughtily  ; 
"  do  not  interfere,  sir  !    Leave  me  to  manage  the  affair." 

Arriving  at  the  sentinel's  post,  Captain  Preston  drew 
up  his  men  in  a  semicircle  with  their  faces  to  the  crowd. 
When  the  people  saw  the  officer  and  beheld  the  threat- 
ening attitude  with  which  the  soldiers  fronted  them, 
their  rage  became  almost  uncontrollable.  "  Fire  !  you 
lobster-backs  !  "  cried  some.  "  You  dare  not  fire,  you 
cowardly  redcoats  I  "  cried  others. 

"  Rush  upon  them  !  "  shouted  many  voices.  "  Drive 
the  rascals  to  their  barracks !  Down  with  them !  Let 
them  fire  if  they  dare  !  " 

Amid  the  uproar,  the  soldiers  stood  glaring  at  the 
people  with  the  fierceness  of  men  whose  trade  it  is  to 
shed  blood.  The  people  appeared  ready  to  rush  upon 
the  levelled  bayonets.  Captain  Preston  waved  his 
sword  and  uttered  a  command  which  could  not  be  dis- 
tinctly heard  amid  the  uproar  of  shouts  that  issued  from 
a  hundred  throats.  But  his  soldiers  thought  he  had 
commanded  "  Fire !  "  The  flash  of  their  muskets 
lighted  the  scene.  Eleven  of  the  sons  of  New  England 
lay  stretched  upon  the  street,  some  never  to  rise  again. 
Blood  streamed  upon  the  snow,  but  that  jjurple  stain, 
though  it  melted  away  in  the  next  day's  sun,  was  never 
forgotten  by  the  people.  —  Nathaniel  HaivtJiorne. 

How  long  before  the  Revolutionary  War  did  the  Boston  Massa- 
cre take  place?  Were  the  soldiers  justified  in  shooting?  What 
famous  Boston  lawyers  defended  the  soldiers  at  their  trial?  What 
is  an  officer  of  the  day?     Why  were  the  soldiers  called  lobster- 


NARRATIVE   C0:MP0SITI0N.  13 

backs?  The  name  of  King  Street  has  been  changed  to  State 
Street  —  for  what  reason  V  Wliy  does  Hawthorne  use  perhaps  so 
frequently  in  this  selection  ?  Is  the  word  squad  applied  to  any 
persons  other  than  soldiers?  To  what  class  of  words  do  sltrill  and 
ra^/Zm^r  belong ?  Why  is  the  sentence  beginning,  "Henry  Knox" 
put  into  parentheses?  What  is  the  effect  of  direct  discourse  in 
narrative  composition  ? 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  THE  WRITER. 

Be  careful  to  use  quotation  marks  when  needed. 
Remember  to  place  a  comma  before  and  after  any  words  that 
interrupt  a  quotation. 

Always  write  small  numbers  in  words. 

The  only  common  exceptions  to  this  rule  ai-e:  the  number  of  the  day  of 
the  month  and  the'  time  of  the  day.  Many,  however,  jirefer  to  write,  "  the 
tenth  of  June,"  rather  than,  "the  10th  of  June";  and  "seven  o'clock," 
rather  tlian,  "7  o'clock."  Usage  allows  either  form,  with  preference  for 
the  word. 

LIST  OF  BOOKS   SUITABLE   FOR   SIMILAR   EXERCISES. 

Grandfather  s  Chair Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 

Historic  Boys Elbridge  S.  Brooks. 

Chivalric  Da>/s Elbridge  S.  Brooks. 

The  Age  of  Chivalry Thomas  Bulfinch. 

The  Story  of  the  Normans Sarah  Orne  Jewett. 

The  Boys  of '76 Charles  C.  Coffin. 


14  STUDIES    IN    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 


CHAPTER   IT. 
THE  USE  OF  WORDS. 


LESSON   v.— CHANGES   IN  WOEDS. 
Obsolete  Words. 

No  one  can  be  a  good  speaker  or  writer  who  lias  not 
the  ability  to  use  the  right  word  in  the  right  place. 
Hence  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  words  we 
employ  should  be  those  in  general  use,  that  they  should 
be  used  by  the  best  speakers  and  writers  of  the  lan- 
guage, and  also  that  each  word  should  be  used  in  its 
correct  and  accepted  meaning. 

A  living  language  is  always  changing,  and  words  are 
continually  falling  out  of  use.  Some  words  in  the  fol- 
lowing extracts,  many  of  them  found  in  the  writings  of 
Shakespeare  and  Milton,  and  others  in  the  Bible,  are 
now  no  longer  in  ordinary  use.  All  such  words  we 
call  obsolete.  They  have,  however,  become  obsolete  so 
recently  that  their  meaning  is  usually  known  to  us. 

EXERCISE     I.  —  SELECT     THE     OBSOLETE     WORDS     AND 
GIVE   THEIR   MEANING. 

Storied  windows  richly  dight. 

Casting  a  dim  religious  light.  —  Milton. 

And  naebody  kens  that  he  lies  there, 

But  his  hawk  and  his  hound  and  his  lady  fair. 

The  Tiixi  Corhiea. 


THE   USE    OF    WORDS.  15 

But  come,  thou  Goddess  fair  and  free, 
In  Heaven  yclept  Euphrosyne.  —  Milton. 

They  wist  not  what  to  say  ;  for  they  were  sore  afraid.  —  Bible. 

If  the  scorn  of  your  bright  eyne 

Have  power  to  raise  such  love  in  mine.  —  Sliakespeare. 

St.  Francis  and  St.  Benedict, 

Bless  this  house  from  wicked  wight ; 

From  the  nightmare  and  the  goblin, 

That  is  hight  good  fellow  Robin.  —  Carlwright. 

In  vain,  the  hinds  the  tln-esliing  floor  prepare, 
And  exercise  their  flails  in  empty  air.  —  Dryden. 

It  was  not  framed  for  village  churls. 

But  for  high  dames  and  mighty  earls.  —  Scott. 

Surely  thou  also   art   one   of  them,  for  thy  speech   bewrayeth 
thee.  — Bible. 

Monday,  the  '25th  day,  we  went  on  shore  to  fell  timber,  some  to 
rive  and  some  to  carry.  —  Chronicles  of  the  Pilgrims. 


Words  whose  Meaning  has  Cliangetl. 

Not  only  do  words  become  obsolete,  but  it  frequently 
happens  that  words  change  in  meaning;  that  is,  they 
lose  their  old  meanings  and  gain  new  ones.  Sometimes 
they  gain  a  new  meaning  and  still  retain  their  old  one. 
This  process  is  continually  going  on  in  every  living  lan- 
guage. Many  words  used  by  Shakespeare  and  Milton 
had  a  very  different  meaning  from  the  one  they  now 
have. 

Examples  of  Words  Changed  in  INIeaning. 

Admire  was  originally  used  in  its  Latin  sense,  to  wonder  at. 

Ex.  Yon  have  displaced  the  iiiirlh,  hroke  the  good  meeting  with 
most  admired  disorder.  —  Machelli. 


IG  STUDIES    IN    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

Brave  meant  showy,  splendid. 
Ex.   In  brave  attire. 

By  and  by  formerly  meant  at  once,  straightway,  immediately  ;  now 
it  means  some  time  in  the  future. 

Ex.  When  persecution  ariseth  because  of  tlie  word,  by  aud  by  he 
is  offended.  —  Bible. 

Censure  once  meant  merely  to  form  an  opinion,  to  estimate,  to 
judge;  now  it  means  to  judge  unfavorably,  to  blame. 

Ex.   Give  every  man  tliine  ear,  but  few  thy  voice  ; 

Take  each  man's  censure,  but  reserve  thy  judgment.—  //amiet. 

Character,  as  a  verb,  formerly  meant  to  write,  to  engrave. 

Ex.   And  these  few  precepts  in  thy  memory 
See  thou  character.  —  Hamlet. 

Imp  has  fallen  low  in  meaning.  It  meant  at  first  a  scion,  a  shoot, 
a  child;  now  it  means  a  young  and  inferior  devil,  a  malig- 
nant spirit. 

Ex.  When  the  cliff  was  made,  they  held  it  open  with  a  wedge  of 
wood,  until  such  time  as  the  imp  or  graff  were  set  hand- 
somely within.  —  Pliny,  Holland's  translation. 

Ex.  Let  us  pray  for  the  king's  most  excellent  majesty,  and  for  his 
beloved  son  Edward,  our  prince,  that  most  angelic  imp. 

Pathway  of  Prayer. 

Knave  at  first  meant  simply  a  boy.      Now    it   means   scoundrel, 

rascal. 

Ex.  Gentle  knave,  good  night.  —  Julius  Csesar. 
Painful  was  used  in  the  sense  of  pains-taking. 

Ex.  I  think  we  have  some  as  painful  magistrates  as  ever  were  in 
England. —  Latimer. 

Resent  originally  meant  to  have  a  clear  conception  of  a  thing  ; 
later  it  was  used  to  express  a  grateful  feeling  for  favors  done. 
Both  of  these  are  obsolete,  and  the  word  as  now  employed 
denotes  anger  because  of  an  injury,  real  or  supposed. 

Villain  now  means  one  who  is  unworthy,  vile;  hut  it  once  meant 
simply  an  ignoble,  base-born  person. 

Ex.  Pour  the  blood  of  a  villain  in  one  basin,  and  the  blood  of  a 
gentleman  in  another,  what  difference  shall  here  be  proved? 

Bacon. 


THE   USE   OF   WORDS.  17 


Words  whose  Meaning  is  now  Changing. 

Boom  is  now  frequently  used  in  the  sense  either  of  a  successful 
effort  or  an  effort  that  hopes  for  success.  The  use  of  the 
word  probably  grows  out  of  its  meaning  to  make  a  noise,  to 
move  rapidly.  It  is  found  chietly  in  the  newspapers,  and 
refers  to  political  and  business  enterprises. 

Interview.  The  word  interview  has  recently  taken  a  special  mean- 
ing in  addition  to  its  general  one,  and  denotes  a  conversa- 
tion which  is  designed  for  publication.  Since  we  have  the 
thing,  we  probably  cannot  avoid  the  word. 

Scheme  has  until  recently  meant  simply  a  plan,  not  necessarily 
either  good  or  bad.  It  is  now  frequently  used  in  an  offen- 
sive sense,  Which  sense  seems  likely  to  become  the  prevailing 
one. 

Philistine.  The  word  Philistine,  the  name  of  the  ancient  inhabi- 
tants of  the  country  surrounding  Canaan,  was  caught  up  by 
the  students  of  the  German  universities  and  applied  first  to 
the  townsmen,  then  to  people  who  did  not  have  a  university 
education,  and  finally  it  came  to  mean  a  matter-of-fact,  com- 
mon-place person,  a  prosaic,  practical  man  or  woman. 

Ex.  Doors  that  open,  windows  that  shut,  locks  that  turn,  razors 
that  shave,  coats  that  wear,  watches  that  go,  and  a  thousand 
more  such  good  things,  are  the  inventions  of  the  Philistines. 

Matthew  Arnold. 


New  Words. 

The  advance  of  science,  new  discoveries,  new  condi- 
tions of  life,  cause  the  formation  of  new  words.  Some 
of  these,  especially  the  scientific  terms,  are  accepted  at 
once ;  many  have  only  a  brief  life  in  newspapers  and 
conversation  and  then  drop  out  of  use  ;  others  remain 
on  sufferance  for  a  time  and  finally  become  established 
in  the  lani^uage. 


18 


STUDIES    IN   ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


Examples  of  Accepted  Words. 

phonograph  telegram 

telephoue  boycott 

Examples  of  Words  not  Accepted. 

enthuse  skedaddle 

saleslady  suicided 


gerrymander 
volapiik 

burglarized 
resurrected 


EXERCISE     I.  —  DETERMINE     THE     STANDING     OP      THE 
FOLLOWING    WORDS. 

Consult  a  dictionary. 


agnostic 

dead-head 

gent 

nobby 

blizzard 

dead-beat 

hoodlum 

paragrapher 

bulldoze 

derail 

illy 

seatage 

buncombe 

doctress 

incog- 

swagger 

cablegram 

dude 

leaderette 

swell  (fine) 

canard 

eventuate 

motor 

tramp  (a  person) 

colorist 

firstly 

mugwump 

waitress 

LESSON  VL— SUGGESTIONS  UPON  THE  USE  OF  WOEDS. 

The  general  principle  in  selecting  words  is  to  avoid 
those  which  are  changed  from  their  proper  and  accepted 
meaning.     The  following  is  a  partial  list  of  such  words, 
allow       should  not  be  used  for  assert. 


awfully  " 
bagged  " 
expect  " 

gentlemen  " 
gents  " 

ladies  " 

mighty        " 
onto 
posted 
realized 
repudiate 


a 
u 


very. 

captured. 

suppose. 

men. 

gentlemen. 

women. 

very. 

upon 

informed. 

obtained. 

reject. 


THE    USE    OF    WORDS.  19 

smart      should  not  he  used  for  intelligent. 

splendid     "  "     "      "       '■    excellent. 

transpire    "  "  '  "      "       "    occur. 

balance       "  "     "      "       "    remainder,      (except  on  accounts.) 

parties  "  "      "        "         "     persons,  (except  as  a  law  toim.) 

( in  spite  of  all  opposition 
reliable         "  "      "        "         "     trustworthy,    J  reliable  seems  to  be   sup- 

(  planting  trustwortliy. 

{female  referring  to  human 
■fomalA  "  "       "        "         "     wnmiii  J  beings  should  never  be  used 

lemaie  woman,  <  except  in  contradistinction 

(.to  male,  used  or  implied. 

Avoid  Provincialisms,  or  local  forms  of  expression. 

Ex.  right  smart  —  I  reckon  —  leave  him  go  —  get  to  go  —  do 
like  I  do  fur  do  as  I  do.     I  guess /or  I  think. 

Avoid  Foreign  Words  when  English  will  do  as  well. 

Some  foreign  words  have  been  received  into  our  language. 
Ex.  ennui,  nom  de  plume,  incognito,  bete  noire.  They  are  usually 
written  in  italics. 

Use  the  idiomatic  expressions  of  the  language. 

Do  not  avoid  strong  idiomatic  expressions  which  have  been  used 
since  Chaucer's  day  simply  because  they  are  difficult  to  parse. 
Ex.   had  rather,  —  had  as  lief. 

Use  short  common  words  rather  than  long  ones  if 
they  express  the  meaning  as  well. 


LESSON  VII.— SYNONYMS. 


The  English  language,  made  up  as  it  is  from  both 
Saxon  and  Latin,  abounds  in  words  that  express  nearly 
the  same  meaning.  Such  words  are  called  synonyms. 
Because  of  these  synonyms  great  exactness  of  expres- 


20  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

sion  is  possible,  and  much  care  and  thouglit  are  neces- 
sary to  select  the  right  word  to  convey  just  the  meaning 
that  is  intended. 

Kill  —  Murder. 

He  killed  the  man,  but  there  is  no  evidence  that  he  murdered 
him. 

John  umrdered  his  dog. 

Five  men  were  killed  by  the  accident. 

The  gardener  killed  the  tree. 

The  little  boy  kills  flies. 

He  murdered  his  companion. 

Are  the  words  kill  and  murder  correctly  used  in  all  these  sen- 
tences? Is  it  correct  to  say  that  a  dog  is  murdered?  Can  a  man 
be  killed,  and  not  umrdered?  Murdered  and  not  killed?  Can  a 
boy  murder  flies?  Write  a  sentence  using  the  words  kill  and 
murder,  showing  the  difference  between  them.  Define  kill ;  define 
murder.  * 

JSTuniber  —  Qumitity. 

A  number  of  persons  were  in  the  room. 
The  quantity  of  wheat  in  Chicago  is  great. 

Is  it  correct  to  say  a  quantity  of  persons  ?  What  does  number 
refer  to  ?  What  does  quantity  refer  to  ?  Write  a  sentence  that 
will  show  the  difference  between  them.  , 

Character  —  Reputation. 

"  Reputation  is  what  men  and  women  think  of  you,  but  charac- 
ter is  what  God  and  the  angels  know  of  you." 
Are  they  always  the  same  ? 

In  —  Into. 

Does  one  put  his  hand  in  or  into  his  pocket?  Do  we  go  in  or 
into  a  room?  After  we  are  in,  do  we  walk  about  into  or  in  it? 
Tell  the  difference  between  the  words. 


THE    USE    OF    WORDS.  21 


Find  —  Discover. 

Columbus  discovered  America  aud  fouud  Indians  inhabiting:  it. 
Could  any  one  discover  America  now  ?     Write  a  sentence  show- 
ing the  difference  between  these  words. 

Lease  —  Hire. 

Mr.  Jones  leased  a  farm  for  two  years  and  hired  a  farmer  to 
work  it. 

Write  a  list  of  tilings  that  are  hired,  and  another  of  things  that 
are  leased.     What  is  the  distinction  between  the  words? 


EXERCISE    I.  —  POINT    OUT    THE    DIFFERENCE    BETWEEN 
THE   FOLLOWING   SYNONYMS. 

come  —  go  alarm  —  terror 

high  —  tall  shade  —  shadow 

shall  —  will  lie  —  untruth 

idle  —  lazy  hope  —  expect 

less  —  fewer  thief  —  robber 

serf  —  slave  escape  —  elude 

bold  —  brave  excite  —  incite 

sea  —  ocean  moment  —  minute 

learn  —  teach  among  —  between 

pair  —  couple  farther  —  further 

safe  —  secure  healthy  —  wholesome 

apt  —  liable  persuade  —  convince 

much  —  many  dissemble  —  conceal 

For  additional  studies  of  this  kind  consult  any  book  of  synonyms. 

EXERCISE    II.  —  WRITE    SEVERAL   WORDS   RELATED    IN 
MEANING  TO   THE   FOLLOWING. 


beautiful 

beg 

like 

idle 

company 

bold 

large 

steal 

cruel 

help 

good 

story 

Roget's  Thesaurus  gives  large  lists  of  words  of  similar  meaning. 


oo 


STUDIES   IN    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 


LESSON  VIII. 


STUDY  OF  WOKDS  FREQUENTLY  MIS- 
PRONOUNCED. 


Consult  the  latest  dictionaries  as  authority. 


accessory 

cement  (noun) 

forge 

massacre 

acclimate 

cemetery 

garrulous 

memoir 

acumen 

clematis 

gaunt 

mischievous 

adult 

coadjutor 

genuine 

museum 

advertisement 

coudolence 

gibbet 

natioual 

again 

commandant 

gondola 

nape 

aggrandize 

comparable 

gooseberry 

nomad 

allopathy 

comrade 

gratis 

often 

ally 

corps 

grievous 

opponent 

almond 

costume 

grimace 

pageant 

alpine 

Danish 

grimy 

patriot 

alternate 

daughter 

guests 

patron 

amateur 

daunt 

half 

petal 

amenable 

desultory 

hearth 

plebeian 

antipodes 

diphtheria 

heinous 

posthumous 

apostle 

disaster 

hegira 

precedence 

apricot 

dislike 

homa3opathy 

quay 

arbutus 

docile 

hundred 

radish 

aroma 

drama 

hurrah 

repartee 

aspiraut 

drought 

hyperbole 

revolt 

assignee 

duke 

impious 

romance 

bade 

dynasty 

incomparable 

sacrifice 

because 

eleven 

industry 

sagacious 

bellows 

empyrean 

inquiry 

satire 

beneath 

engine 

jugular 

sepal 

boatswain 

envelope 

lamentable 

sergeant 

biography 

enervate 

launch 

somber 

bitumen 

equipage 

laundry 

squalor 

bravado 

erudite 

lava 

subtile 

brevet 

exhaust 

learned  (adj.) 

sumac 

brigand 

exist 

legend 

thither 

branch 

extant 

legislature 

tripod 

bronchitis 

extempore 

leisure 

vagaries 

calends 

extraordinary 

lettuce 

vicar 

canine 

falchion 

lever 

virile 

can't 

falcou 

literature 

visor 

capillary 

figure 

lyceum 

water 

catch 

financier 

maintain 

wrath 

caught 

finale 

mausoleum 

weapon 

DESCRIPTIVE    COMPOSITION.  23 


CHAPTER   III. 

DESCRIPTIVE   COMPOSITION. 


LESSON  IX.  —  DESCKIPTIONS  OF  OBJECTS. 

EXERCISE  I. MODEL  FOR  STUDY. 

THE  OLD  CLOCK. 

As  I  look  up  the  stairway,  my  glance  rests  upon  the 
old  clock,  whose  white  face  seems  to  look  down  with  a 
solemn  stare,  as  if  it  felt  itself  impelled  to  keep  an  eye 
upon  me.  It  is  of  the  "  ancient  timepiece  "  order,  made 
of  mahogany  almost  black  with  age.  It  is  fully  eight 
feet  high,  and  in  form  is  a  pillar  with  base  and  capital 
and  tall  shaft. 

It  is  rather  a  plain  specimen  of  its  kind,  the  base  and 
capital  resembling  square  boxes.  The  shaft,  straight 
and  slender,  has  a  glass  door,  through  which  I  catch  the 
glimmer  of  the  pendulum  as  it  swings  to  and  fro  in 
stately  march.  The  door  is  hung  on  huge  brass  hinges, 
and  is  further  ornamented  with  a  brass  scroll-work  key- 
hole. The  capital,  surmounted  by  a  simply  carved 
gable-pointed  roof,  bears  the  face.  The  figures  on  the 
face  are  black,  and  the  hands,  \Yhiclii  I  suspect  to  be  of 
modern  make,  are  of  bluish  steel. 

In  the  four  corners,  cut  off  by  the  line  which  encircles 
the  numbers,   are   painted   stiff,   quaint,  old-fashioned 


24  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

roses  in  pink  and  bine,  with  marvellously  green  leaves 

all  quite  undininied  by  age. 

From  what  is  "ancient  timepiece"  quoted?  Why  is  the  phrase 
"  straight  and  slender "  separated  from  the  context  by  commas  ? 
Why  is  the  phrase  beginning  with  "  surmounted "  also  so  sepa- 
rated?    Explain  the  commas  after  "stiff"  and  "quaint." 

Note.  —  Observe  that  the  main  features  are  first  given,  so  as  to 
call  up  to  the  mind  a  more  or  less  correct  image  of  the  clock  as  a 
whole ;  then  the  details  are  given,  as  to  form,  dimensions,  and 
ornamentation. 

LIST  OF  OBJECTS  TO  BE   DESCRIBED. 

An  Office  Desk.  A  Cabinet. 

A  Modern  Bookcase.  A  Dressing-Case. 

A  Library  Table.  A  Bank  Safe. 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  THE  WRITER. 

Avoid  the  excessive  use  of  "there  is"  and  "there  are."  Use 
different  kinds  of  connectives,  —  conjunctions,  relatives,  and  con- 
junctive adverbs,  —  so  that  your  sentences  will  not  all  sound  alike. 

Do  not  begin  several  consecutive  sentences  in  the  same  way. 
Description  is  apt  to  be  monotonous.  Use  every  means  in  your 
power  to  avoid  that  fault. 


LESSON   X.— GENERAL  DESOKIPTIONS. 

EXERCISE    I.  MODEL    FOR    REPRODUCTION. 

This   should  be   reproduced    from   memory,   each   writer  using  as 
many  of  the  adjectives  as  possible. 

Old  Baltus  Van  Tassel  was  a  perfect  specimen  of  a 
thriving,  contented,  liberal-hearted  farmer.  His  home- 
stead was  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Hudson,  in  one 
of  those  green-sheltered  fertile  nooks  in  which  the 
Dutch  farmers  are  so  fond  of  nestling.  A  great  elm 
tree  spread  its  broad  branches  over  it,  at  the  foot  of 


DESCRIPTIVE   COIVIPOSITION.  25 

which  bubbled  up  a  spring  of  the  softest  and  sweetest 
water  in  a  little  well,  formed  of  a  barrel,  and  then  stole 
sparkling  away  through  the  grass  to  a  neighboring 
brook  that  bubbled  along  among  alders  and  dwarf 
willows. 

Hard  by  the  farm-house  was  a  vast  barn  that  might 
have  served  for  a  church,  every  window  and  crevice  of 
which  seemed  bursting  forth  with  the  treasures  of  the 
farm;  swallows  skimmed  twittering  about  the  eaves, 
and  rows  of  pigeons,  some  with  one  eye  turned  up  as  if 
watcliing  the  weather,  some  with  their  heads  under 
their  wings  or  buried  in  their  bosoms,  and  others  swell- 
ing and  cooing,  were  enjoying  the  sunshine  on  the  roof. 

A  stately  squadron  of  snowy  geese  were  riding  in  an 
adjoining  pond  convojdng  whole  flocks  of  ducks  ;  regi- 
ments of  turkeys  were  gobbling  through  the  farm-yards, 
and  guinea-fowls  fretting  about  it,  with  their  peevish 
discontented  cry.  Before  the  barn-door  strutted  the 
gallant  cock,  a  warrior  and  a  gentleman,  clapping  his 
fine  wings  and  crowing  in  the  pride  and  gladness  of 
his  heart ;  sometimes  tearing  up  the  earth  with  his  feet 
and  then  generously  calling  his  ever-hungry  family  of 
wives  and  children  to  enjoy  the  rich  morsels  which  he 
had  discovered.  —  Washington  Irving. 

EXERCISE     II.  —  QUICK    WORK     IN     GENERAL    DESCRIP- 
TION. 

Members  of  the  class  may  recall  some  familiar  place, 
no  matter  where  situated.  Each  pupil  should  bring  a 
picture  of  it  before  the  mind,  and  then  write  his  own 
description,  making  it  minute  as  possible. 

The  guiding  principle  in  descriptive  writing  is  to  imagine  we 
see  before  us  the  object  or  scene  to  be  described. 


26  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

LIST  OF  SUBJECTS  FOR  GENERAL  DESCRIPTIONS. 

The  Playground. 

Position  —  size  —  kind  of  fence  —  trees  —  shrubs  —  flower-beds 
—  adapted  to  what  games  ? 

The  Skating-Rink. 

Different  sports  of  winter  —  skating  most  delightful  when 
learned  —  why  skating-rinks  were  made  —  describe  one  that  you 
have  visited. 

A  Sugar  Camp. 

Kind  of  maple  tree  which  gives  most  sap  —  when  is  the  sugar 
season  ?  —  what  is  good  sugar  weather  ?  —  how  is  sap  obtained  ?  — 
how  gathered?  —  how  is  sugar  made?  — what  stops  the  flow  of 
sap  ?  —  how  many  pounds  of  sugar  are  produced  by  a  single  tree  ? 

The  Woods  in  Autumn. 

Autumn  tints  of  leaves  of  different  trees :  maples  —  elms  — 
beeches  —  oaks  —  chestnuts.  General  effect  of  autumnal  forest. 
Why  are  trees  of  America  more  brilliant  in  autumn  than  those  of 
Europe  ?  —  month  of  finest  color  —  fall  of  the  leaves. 

"  Here  and  there  in  the  midst  of  the  dark  green  foliage,  leaves  shone  so 
vividly  yellow  that  it  seemed  as  if  upon  tliem  some  fascinated  sunbeam  had 
expended  all  its  color.  Away  off  in  a  dusky  recess  tlared  the  crimson 
sumac.  And  the  distant  blue  mountain,  the  azure  sky,  the  wooded  valley, 
and  every  change  of  purple  haze  that  jiossessed  the  air,  —  added  an  ideal 
embellishment  to  the  scene."  —  Charles  Egbert  Craddock. 

"  Falling  leaves,  when  there  is  little  or  no  wind  to  influence  t^efr  course, 
have  their  stems  vertical  and  foremost,  and  spin  round  and'  round  like 
so  many  teetotems  twirled  in  some  game  of  invisible  sprites.  It  is  singular 
how  soon  the  falling  leaf  changes  its  color;  scarlet  becoming  madder, 
yellow  a  dull  umber."  — Edith  Thomas. 

Read  Autumnal  Tints,  by  Henry  D.  Thoreau. 

A  Farm. 

If  you  live  on  a  farm,  describe  it.  Location  —  number  of  acres 
1— variety  of  soil  —  adaptability  to  various  crops.     Independence 


DESCEIPTIVE   COMPOSITION.  27 

and  dignity  of  fanner's  life.  Animals  raised  on  a  farm  :  horses  — 
cows  —  sheep  — fowls.  Care  that  these  animals  need  to  keep  them 
in  health. 

"  All  hens  are  worth  studying  for  the  piquancy  and  rich  variety  of 
their  manners,  but  by  no  possibility  can  there  have  been  other  fowls  of 
such  odd  appearance  as  these.  Chanticleer  himself,  though  stalking  on  two 
stilt-like  legs,  was  hardly  larger  than  a  chicken  ;  his  two  wives  were  about 
the  size  of  quails;  and  as  for  the  one  chicken,  it  looked  small  enough  to  be 
still  in  the  egg.  and  at  the  same  time  sufficiently  old,  withered,  wizened, 
and  experienced  to  have  been  the  founder  of  the  ancient  race."  —  Nathaniel 
Hawthorne. 

Read  My  Farm  at  Edgeicood,  by  Donald  G.  Mitchell. 

The  Museum. 

Describe  the  objects  of  interest  found  in  some  museum  that  you 
have  visited. 

The  Public  Park. 

Name  —  location  • —  drives  —  walks  —  trees  —  flowers  —  decora- 
tions of  various  kinds  —  summer  houses  —  statues.  Value  of 
parks  to  cities. 

"  A  man's  name  attached  to  a  park  is  the  most  enduring  of  monuments, 
for  it  partakes  of  the  earth  itself." 

A  Cotton  Mill. 

Follow  a  bale  of  cotton  through  the  various  processes,  describing 
each  as  well  as  possible,  until  it  appears  as  cotton  cloth. 

A  Paper  Mill. 

Describe  the  processes  of  paper-making. 

A  Lake. 

Name  —  size  —  location  —  outlet  —  inlet  —  character  of  water 
—  depth  of  water  —  character  of  shore  —  fish  found  in  it. 

The  Seashore. 

Describe  some  particular  coast  that  you  have  visited  :  beach  — 
rocks  —  tide  —  fish  caught  —  shells  and  seaweed  found  —  color  of 
water. 


28  STUDIES   IN    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

"  The  beauty  of  water  is  ever  changing.  It  borrows  from  earth  and  aii 
and  heaven.  The  clouds  lend  it  the  various  dyes  of  their  wardrobe  and 
throw  down  upon  it  tlu'  broad  masses  of  their  shadows  as  they  go  sailing 
and  sweeping  by.  The  sunbeams  return  from  it  in  showers  of  diamonds 
and  glances  of  lire;  the  moonbeams  find  in  it  a  pathway  of  silver  through 
the  livelong  night.  It  harmonizes  both  witli  the  night  and  with  the  day. 
It  cheerfully  reflects  the  light  and  unites  solemnly  with  the  darkness." 

Note.  —  Each  pupil  should  select  those  subjects  with  which  he  is  perfectly 
familiar.  There  should  be  little  or  no  refei'ence  to  books.  Every  town  or  city 
will  have  local  places  of  resort,  or  places  of  historical  interest  which  may 
be  used  as  subjects.  In  a  manufacturing  district  there  will  be  a  great 
variety  of  manufacturing  establishments  which  may  be  described.  Pupils 
should  be  encouraged  to  visit  them  for  that  purpose. 

SUGGESTIONS   TO  THE  WRITER. 

Do  not  place  a  word  between  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mode  and 
its  sign.  Ex.  "  To  represent  faithfully,"  instead  of  "  To  faithfiUly 
represent." 

Use  so  instead  of  as  after  a  negative.  Ex.  "  Nothing  is  impos- 
sible to  a  nation  so  strong  as  ours,"  instead  of  "Nothing  is  impos- 
sible to  a  nation  as  strong  as  ours." 

Do  not  use  pronouns  of  different  numbers  or  genders  when 
all  refer  to  the  same  antecedent. 

Do  not  use  a  plural  pronoun  referring  to  such  words  as  each 
and  every. 


LESSON  XL-DESOEIPTIONS  OP  PERSONS. 

EXERCISE   I.  —  MODEL   FOR   STUDY. 
GEORGE   WASHINGTON. 

When  Washington  was  elected  general  of  the  army 
he  was  forty-three  years  of  age.  In  stature  he  a  little 
exceeded  six  feet ;  his  limbs  were  sinewy  and  well  pro- 
portioned ;  his  chest  broad,  his  figure  stately,  blending 


DESCRIPTIVE    COMPOSITION.  29 

dignity  of  presence  with  ease  of  manner.  His  robust 
constitution  had  been  tried  and  invigorated  by  his  early 
life  in  tlie  wilderness,  his  habit  of  occupation  out  of 
doors,  and  his  rigid  temperance ;  so  that  few  equalled 
him  in  strength  of  arm  or  power  of  endurance.  His 
complexion  was  florid,  his  hair  dark  brown,  his  head  in 
its  shape  perfectly  round.  His  broad  nostrils  seemed 
formed  to  give  expression  and  escape  to  scornful  anger. 
His  dark  blue  eyes,  which  were  deeply  set,  had  an  ex- 
pression of  resignation  and  an  earnestness  that  was 
almost  sad.  —  George  Bancroft. 

Observe  that  in  the  above  personal  description,  not  merely 
height,  form,  features,  and  complexion  are  given,  but  also  certain 
characteristics  of  manner  and  expression,  and  even  some  circum- 
stances of  his  life  and  surroundings.  These  are  necessary  to  make 
an  individual  description.  One  that  takes  note  of  physical  feat- 
ures only  might  apply  equally  well  to  any  of  a  number  of  people. 


EXERCISE   II. —  PERSONAL   DESCRIPTIONS. 

Pupils  may  describe  in  class  some  person  or  persons  well  known 
to  all  present  without  mentioning  names  or  circumstances  which 
would  reveal  the  identity.  The  test  of  excellence  will  be  the  readi- 
ness with  which  the  hearers  can  recognize  the  portraiture. 

Write  a  purely  physical  description,  and  see  to  how  many  per- 
sons it  might  apply. 

Write  a  list  of  adjectives  describing  eyes.  Do  not  forget  that 
size  and  color  will  not  individualize  eyes.  Let  the  list  include 
words  or  phrases  which  shall  describe  their  setting,  use,  expression, 
and  kind,  with  regard  to  character  revealed.  Observing  the  same 
precautions,  write  a  list  of  adjectives  descriptive  of  the  other  feat- 
ures of  the  face. 

Each  pupil  may  bring  to  class  some  aptly  worded  quotation, 
descriptive  of  the  features.  Ex.  "  Blue  were  her  eyes  as  the  fairy 
flax." 


30 


STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 


EXERCISE    III.  —  LIST 

OF 

HISTORICAL    PERSONS    TO 

BE 

DESCRIBED. 

George  III. 

Queen  Elizabeth 

Kaiser  William  I. 

Prince  Bismarck 

Abraham  Lincoln 

Benjamin  Franklin 

Daniel  Webster 

Julius  Caesar 

EXERCISE   IV.  —  LIST 

OF 

FICTITIOUS    PERSONS   TO 

BE 

DESCRIBED. 

/ 

Marmion 

Sir  Launfal 

Scrooge 

' 

King  Arthur 

Hamlet 

Christian 

Ivanhoe 

Lady  Macbeth 

Ophelia 

Rip  Van  Winkle 

LESSON  XIL- DESCRIPTIONS  OF  THE   WAY  IN  WHICH 
ARTICLES  ARE  MADE. 


EXERCISE   I. 


MODEL   FOR   STUDY. 


Pupils    should    read    this    description    carefully  and   then    try  to 
describe  the  manner  of  making  some  other  article. 

HOW    TO    MAKE   AN    APRON. 

Then  there  are  the  delicate  cheese-cloth  aprons,  nice 
enough  for  anybody,  though  they  need  not  cost  over 
five  cents  without  trimming.  Three-fourths  of  a  yard 
will  make  one  lonor  enoug'h  and  allow  for  a  three-inch 
hem.  It  should  be  hemmed  the  same  width  up  the 
sides,  —  no  goring,  —  and  gathered  into  a  belt.  Before 
making  it  up,  draw  the  threads  just  above  the  hem  for 
three-quarters  of  an  inch ;  then  leave  an  equal  sjiace 
and  draw  as  many  more,  and  so  on  until  you  have  four 


DESCRIPTIVE    COMPOSITION.  31 

of  these  spaces ;  then  through  the  middle  of  these  run 
a  needleful  of  embroidery  silk,  taking  up  several  of  the 
warp  threads  as  you  go,  and  turn  them  the  other  way, 
making  an  openwork  pattern ;  or  run  a  narrow  ribbon 
of  some  gay  color  through  them.  The  bottom  hem 
comes  up  to  meet  this  work  and  helps  complete  a  rich- 
looking  border.  If  you  wish  to  make  a  very  pretty 
one,  set  all  around  it  some  cream-colored  lace  and  put 
a  ribbon  for  strings ;  but  this  kind  of  apron  has  no 
pocket.  —  The  Wide  Aioake. 

LIST  OF  SUBJECTS  FOR  SIMILAR  DESCRIPTIONS. 

Making  a  Doll's  House. 

How  to  Sweep  a  Room. 

Care  of  a  Canary. 

Christinas  Presents. 

How  to  Take  Care  of  House  Plants. 

How  to  Make  Paper  Flowers. 

How  to  Make  Figures  by  Folding  a  Handkerchief. 

Folding  Paper  to  Make  Boxes. 

EXERCISE   II.  —  MODEL   FOR   STUDY. 
HOW   TO    CAST    A    FLY    IN    FISHING. 

One  of  the  most  difficult  things  in  fly-fishing  is  to  get 
your  fly  to  fall  just  where  you  wish  it  to.  To  do  this,  a 
little  preliminary  practice  is  necessary.  Tie  a  small 
weight,  say  a  little  block  of  wood  an  inch  long  and  as 
thick  as  your  little  finger,  to  the  free  end  of  your  line, 
which  has  been  drawn  out  some  eiglit  or  nine  feet. 
Then,  standing  firmly  erect  in  an  easy  position,  take  the 
rod  in  the  right  liand,  grasping  it  by  the  handle  just 
above  the  reel  ;  with  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the 
left  hand  take  liolit  hold  of  the  bit  of  wood  at  the  line's 
end. 


32  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMrOSITION. 

You  are  now  ready  for  the  cast ;  tlie  rod  is  nearly  ver- 
tical, and  the  line  is  drawn  taut.  By  a  motion  gradually 
increasing  in  rapidity,  Avave  the  rod  backward  over  the 
left  shoulder,  at  the  same  time  loosing  the  bit  of  wood 
and  allowing  the  line  to  swing  straight  out  behind  you. 
Then  before  the  wood  can  touch  the  ground  in  your 
rear  wave  the  rod,  by  a  gradually  quickening  motion  and 
with  a  slight  curve  to  the  right,  forward  so  as  to  whip 
the  line  to  the  full  length  that  is  unwound,  straio-ht  out 
before  you,  allowing  the  block,  which  is  at  present  your 
fly,  to  settle  lightly  on  the  ground. 

Now  to  cast  again,  wind  off  by  turning  the  reel  a  foot 
or  more  of  line,  and  then  by  a  gentle  sweep  of  the  rod 
upAvard  ai]d  backward,  fling  the  line  full  length  straight 
behind,  and  before  it  can  fall  to  the  ground  throw  it 
forward  again  as  in  the  first  casts.  Try  this  over  and 
over  again  until  you  get  so  that  you  can  fling  out  twelve 
feet  of  line  every  time  and  make  your  bit  of  wood  go  to 
just  the  spot  you  aim  at.  This  accomplished,  you  are 
ready  to  begin  practice  on  water  with  a  fly. 

The  Wide  Awake. 

LIST  OF  SUBJECTS  FOR  SIMILAR  DESCRIPTIONS. 

How  to  Make  a  Kite. 

How  to  Set  up  a  Water  Wheel. 

How  to  Set  up  a  Tent. 

The  Building  of  a  Boat. 

How  to  play  Tennis  —  Football  —  Base-ball. 

Learning  to  Ride  a  Bicycle. 

How  to  Make  a  Fire  Balloon. 

How  to  Build  a  Snow  Fort. 

The  foregoing  list  is  especially  adapted  for  boys,  as  that  of  Exercise  I.  is 
for  girls.  lu  both  cases  what  seems  apparently  very  easy  will  be  found 
upon  trial  to  be  difficult.  The  number  of  persons  who  can  give  a  clear  and 
accurate  description  of  the  way  anything  is  made  or  done  is  very  small. 


ERRORS  IN  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE.       33 


CHAPTER   IV. 

COMMON  ERRORS  LJV  THE    USE   OF  LAN- 
GUAGE. 

All  sentences  should  he  correct  in  form.  The  errors 
most  commonly  made  by  those  loho  use  the  language  ivith 
a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  are  included  iti  this  chajjter. 


LESSON  XIII.— THE  NON-AGREEMENT  OF  SUBJECT  AND 

PREDICATE. 

This  mistake  is  most  likely  to  occur  in  the  case  of 
collective  nouns,  and  when  the  subject  is  complex  or 
far  removed  from  the  verb. 

The  usage  for  collective  nouns  is  not  entirely  fixed, 
but  the  principle  seems  to  be,  that  when  the  speaker  or 
writer  thinks  of  the  objects  indicated  by  a  collective 
noun  as  a  whole,  a  singular  verb  should  be  used ;  when 
he  thinks  of  them  individually,  a  plural  verb  should  be 
used. 

Examples  of  Correct  U.sage. 

The  wages  of  sin  is  death.  —  The  subject  is  conceived  as  singuhu . 

Five  dollars  is  too  much.  —  Five  dollars  is  taken  as  a  whole. 

The  multitude  were  of  one  mind.  —  Individuals  are  thought  of. 

The  multitude  was  too  large  to  number.  —  Individuals  are  not 
thought  of. 

Pleasures,  and  not  study,  occupy  his  mind.  —  The  verb  agrees 
with  the  artirmative  subject  instead  of  the  negative. 


34  STUDIES    IN   ENGLISH   COISIPOSITION. 

Love,  and  love  only,  is  the  loan  for  love.  —  When  subjects  are 
emphatically  distinguished,  the  verb  agrees  with  one,  and  is  under- 
stood with  the  others. 

You  were  busy  even  when  alone.  —  You  always  requires  a 
plural  verb. 

The  gentleman  with  his  children  is  in  town.  —  With  his  chil- 
dren does  not  affect  the  verb. 


EXERCISE    I.  —  JUSTIFY    THE    USE     OF     THE    ITALICIZED 

WORDS. 

"  Books  "  is  a  noun. 

The  jury  gave  their  verdict. 

Twice  as  much  is  too  much. 

The  tongs  are  not  here. 

The  crowd  throng  the  streets. 

Either  he  or  I  am  right. 

You  were  alone  in  the  house. 

Money,  as  well  as  men,  is  needed. 

It  was  stock-certificates  that  I  purchased. 

Every  one  should  have  his  life  insured. 

Mr.  Edwards,  in  company  with  his  sons,  is  in  the  city. 

All  work  and  no  play  makes  Jack  a  dull  boy. 


Wrong  Case  of  the  Pronoun  after  the  Verb  To  Be. 

The  verb  to  he  takes  the  same  case  after  it  as  before  it.  This 
rule  holds  good  when  there  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  objective 
ease  before  the  infinitive. 


Examples  of  Correct  Usage. 

I  believed  it  to  be  him.  —  It  is  objective,  so  him  should  be  objec- 
tive. 

I  knew  it  was  she.  —  //  is  nominative,  so  she  should  be  nomina- 
tive. 


EREORS  IN  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE.       35 


LESSON  XIV.-EEEOES  IN  THE   USE   OP  VEEB-TENSES. 

Confusion  of  Past  Tense  and  Perfect  Participle  of  the  Following 

Verbs. 


break 

come 

do 

fall 

go 

drink 

drive 

ride 

see 

sing 

swim 

ring 

The  pupil  should  give  the  principal  parts  of  these  verbs,  and  illustrate 
their  use  in  compound  tenses. 

Confusion  in  the  Use  of  the  Verbs. 

lie  and  lay  —  sit  and  set  —  rise  and  raise. 


Pres. 

Past. 

Pres.  Part. 

Per.  Part. 

lie  (to  recline) 

lay 

lying 

lain 

lay  (to  place) 

laid 

laying 

laid 

sit 

sat 

sitting 

sat 

set  (to  place) 

set 

setting 

set 

rise 

rose 

rising 

risen 

raise 

raised 

raising 

raised 

The  pupils  should  make  sentences  illustrating  the  correct  use  of  these 
verb's. 


Confusion  in  the  Use  of  Shall  and  Will,  Should  and  Would. 

Rule. —  Use  ivill  and  icould  whenever  the  subject 
names  the  one  whose  will  controls  the  action ;  and  shall 
and  should  whenever  the  one  named  by  the  subject  is 
under  the  control  of  external  influences. 

The  original  meaning  of  shall  is  to  owe,  to  he  obliged;  of  icill,  is 
to  determine. 

Shall  in  the  first  person  denotes  simple  futurity  ;  in  the  second 
and  third,  determination. 

Will  in  the  first  person  denotes  determination  ;  in  the  second  and 
third,  simple  futurity. 


36  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

Ex.    Futurity.  Determination. 

1  shall  I  will 

You  will  You  shall 

He  will  He  shall 

We  shall  We  will 

You  will  You  shall 

They  will  They  shall 

This  determination  is  often  softened  into  an  assent  or  promise,  and  is 
only  determination  when  emphatic. 

EXERCISE  I. — TELL  WHETHER  DETERMINATION  OR  SIM- 
PLE FUTURITY  IS    EXPRESSED   IN  THE  FOLLO\YlNG. 

This  child  I  to  myself  will  take ; 
She  shall  be  mine,  and  I  will  make 

A  lady  of  my  own. 
I  The  stars  of  midnight  shall  be  dear 

To  her  ;  and  she  shall  lean  her  ear 

In  many  a  secret  place, 
AVhere  rivulets  dance  their  wayward  round 
And  beauty  born  of  murmuring  sound 

Shall  pass  into  her  face.  —  Wordsworth. 

In  asking  a  question  we  are  accustomed  to  use  shall  or  ivill  according 
as  the  one  or  the  other  is  to  be  used  in  reply.  If  we  say,  "  Shall  you  go?  " 
we  expect  the  reply,  "  I  shall  go  "  or  "  I  shall  not  go  " ;  or  "  Will  he  go?  " 
we  expect  the  reply,  "  He  will  go  "  or  "He  will  not  go." 


LESSOIT  XV. -ERRORS  IN   THE  USE  OF   PRONOUNS. 

It  is  often  very  difficult  to  make  clear  to  which  ante- 
cedent our  pronouns  in  the  third  person  refer. 

Confusion  in  the  Use  of  -ffe,  His,  and  Him, 

The  farmer  w^ent  to  his  neighbor  and  told  him  his  cattle  were  in 
his  field.  —  Whose  cattle  were  in  whose  field  ? 


EEROKS  IN  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE.       37 

The  lion  had  a  struggle  with  a  man  and  he  killed  him.  —  Which 
was  killed? 

On  his  way  he  visited  the  son  of  an  old  friend  who  had  asked 
him  to  call  upon  him  on  his  way  northward.  He  was  overjoyed  to 
see  him ;  and  he  sent  for  one  of  his  workmen  and  told  him  to  con- 
sider himself  at  his  service,  since  he  could  not  take  him  as  he 
wished  about  the  city.  —  Call  the  visitor  A,  the  gentleman  visited, 
B.  Make  a  list  of  the  j^ronouns  in  order  and  tell  to  whom  each 
refers. 

To  obviate  such  difficulties,  the  seutence  may  be  broken  up  into  two  or 
more  sentences,  or  the  speeches  may  be  put  into  the  first  person  by  direct 
quotation  ;  or,  nouns  may  be  used  in  place  of  the  pronouns.  A  beautiful 
example  of  nouns  used  in  place  of  pronouns  is  the  followiug  from  Genesis 
xliv.  22:  "The  lad  cannot  leave  his  father;  for  if  he  should  leave  his 
father,  his  father  would  die." 

lucorrect  use  of  the  Prououu  Their. 

The  English  language  has  no  pronoun  of  common  gender,  singu- 
lar number.  Their  is  often  used  as  such  a  pronoun,  although 
wholly  without  authority.  Thus,  in  speaking  to  a  group)  of  boys 
and  girls,  this  expression  is  used,  /  wish  each  one  to  attend  to  their 
own  lessons,  when  it  should  be,  I  wish  each  one  to  attend  to  his  own 
lesson.     His  for  the  time  takes  the  common  gender. 

Incorrect  Arr.angreinent  of  Pronouns. 

When  pronouns  of  different  persons  are  used,  the  second  should 
precede  the  third,  and  the  third  the  first. 

He  and  I  were  there,  not  /  and  he  were  there.  The  only  excep- 
tion is  when  one  confesses  a  fault ;  then  the  first  may  precede  the 
third. 


38  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


CHAPTER   V. 
CORRESPOJ^BEKCE. 

Under  this  title  are  included  letters  of  friendship  and 
courtesy,  notes  of  ceremony  pertaining  to  social  func- 
tions, and  business  and  official  letters.  There  are  cer- 
tain principles  which  apply  equally  to  all  of  these. 

Always  use  good  paper  and  black  ink.  Decorated  or 
highly  colored  writing  papers  are  in  poor  taste.  Plain 
white  or  slightly  tinted  paper  of  medium  weight  is  best. 

All  letters  and  notes  should  be  written  legibly  and 
neatly,  carefully  punctuated,  and  absolutely  correct  as  to 
spelling. 

If  you  are  in  the  least  doubt  as  to  the  spelling  of  a  word,  look  it 
up  in  the  dictionary. 

Never  send  a  letter  marred  by  blots,  erasures,  or  corrections. 
Rewrite  as  often  as  necessary  to  make  it  perfect.  This  applies 
with  especial  force  to  business  letters ;  many  a  future  has  been 
made  or  marred  by  the  attention  or  lack  of  attention  paid  to 
these  essential  details.  But  even  to  the  most  intimate  friend  or 
relative  should  be  paid  the  due  respect  of  a  neatly  prepared  letter. 

All  letters  and  notes,  Avith  a  few  special  exceptions, 
require  a  prompt  acknowledgment  of  receipt,  if  not  an 
immediate  answer. 

This  is  especially  the  case  in  business  letters  and  those  contain- 
ing enclosures  of  any  kind. 

All  letters  and  notes  should  be  courteous. 

Under  no  circiimstances  can  you  afford  to  be  discourteous  — 
"  Noblesse  oblige."  To  inferiors  in  station  be  kjndly  ;  to  superiors, 
respectful ;  and  to  equals,  friendly. 


CORRESPONDENCE.  39 

All  letters  and  notes  should  contain  the  full  name  of 
the  writer  and  his  address. 

Even  if  your  address  is  well  known  to  your  correspondent,  it  is 
advisable  never  to  omit  it.  In  case  your  letter  goes  astray  it  can 
be  returned  to  you.  Holding  in  our  memories  as  we  do  so 
many  addresses,  it  may  happen  to  all  of  us  sometimes  to  forget  a 
familiar  address. 

The  only  exceptions  to  the  above  principle  are  in  the  case  of  cer- 
tain formal  notes  of  ceremony,  which  will  be  explained  in  the  les- 
son treating  of  them. 

All  letters  and  notes  asking  information  should  be  re- 
read immediately  before  answering. 

This  applies  to  most  letters.  A  question  asked  in  writing  should 
be  answered  as  punctiliously  as  in  conversation. 


LESSON  XVI.— rORMS   OF  LETTERS  IN  GENERAL  COE- 

RESPONDENOE. 

There  are  certain  conventional  ways  of  beginning  and 
ending  a  letter,  which,  with  little  variation,  are  univer- 
sally followed. 

They  are  classified  as  follows  : 


The  heading  < 


Address  of  the  writer. 
Date  in  full. 


m,     .   ,      ,     , .        ( Name  and  address  of  the  correspondent. 
The  introduction  i  ^,         ,        . 

(  The  salutation. 

The  body  of  the  letter. 

,„,  ,     .        ( Complimentary  close. 

Ihe  conclusion  <  ^. 

(  Signature. 


40  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMrOSITION. 

MODELS. 

61  jak-yi  ^t.,  CLkvo-n,  Hkla. 
TftvQy.   j.  CI.  (ZclaArLO', 

Tflu  cl&c^v  I'HoucLoi'iyv  :    c^n  le/^tu  to  i^o-uv 
teZt&v,  et^. 

(Body  of  the  letter.) 
c/  OATU, 

"U&vu  txmLu  uo-uA^, 

jaA/ri  jC.  S^eAxpca-cyyv. 


fuiAf  /at,  /S<^/. 
TVlu  cLeyOA^  ?yi\A.  CLcLayyiQy, 

Jn  ve^l%{'  to-  ucywv  IttteA,  ay,  ete^. 

(Body  of  the  letter.) 

c/  ve/ntcci/yt, 

D-£AAf  tvutu  UCyuAM/, 

So-  Trii^.  f.  ct.  clA'O/yi'lq,, 

S'ott^v-vll&,  S'&'yvn. 


CORRESPONDENCE.  41 

It  is  only  in  letters  of  some  degree  of  formality  such  as 
those  addressed  to  persons  in  office,  to  strangers,  or  in  business  cor- 
respondence, that  the  address  of  the  corresponderrt  is  included  in 
the  introduction.  Notice  that  when  it  is  so  included  the  salutation 
is  followed  by  a  colon,  and  the  body  of  the  letter  begins  imme- 
diately after  it,  on  the  same  line. 

A  less  formal  style  is  to  place  the  address  of  the  correspondent 
at  the  end  of  the  letter,  below  and  to  the  left  of  the  signature  of 
the  writer.  In  this  arrangement  the  form  of  the  introduction  is  as 
in  the  second  letter  on  the  preceding  page.  Notice  that  here  the 
salutation  is  followed  by  a  comma,  and  that  the  body  of  the  letter 
begins  on  the  line  below. 

There  is  a  prevailing  custom  at  present  of  having  one's  address 
stamped  at  the  head  of  correspondence  paper,  in  which  case  the 
date  is  usually  placed  at  the  end  of  the  letter. 


40  SScst  59t^  St. 

(Body  of  the  letter.) 


The  day  of  the  month,  as  above,  is  sometimes  written 
in  words. 


42  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

The  more  familiar  style  of  salutation  is 

M'ji  dear  Mr.  Jones; 
more  formal  and  more  business-like  is 

Dear  Mr.  Jones; 
and  still  more  formal  is 

Mr.  J.  Jones, 

Dear  Sir: 

The  variety  in  the  forms  of  closing  a  letter  is  much 
greater  than  in  that  of  introdnction  and  admits  the 
exercise  of  individuality ;  still  there  are  certain  accepted 
phrases  which  are  commonly  used  to  introduce  the  com- 
plimentary close. 

These  phrases,  I  ami,  I  remain,  Believe  me,  etc.,  should 
not  be  placed  on  a  separate  line,  nor  upon  the  line  with 
the  complimentary  close,  but  should  follow  immediately 
the  last  sentence  of  the  body  of  the  letter,  thus : 

Trusting  to  hear  that  you  are  now  in  much  better  health,  I 

remain, 

Yours  very  sincerely, 

J.  L.  Canton. 


Hoping  for  a  favorable  response,  I  am, 

Very  truly  yours, 

Bertha  G.  Martin. 
Address  Mrs.  J.  F.  Martin. 

A  #iiarrierl  woman  should  sign  her  own  given  name,  but  indi- 
cate, as  above,  her  projier  title  of  address. 


Rejoicing  to  hear  of  your  good  fortune  in  having  been  re-elected, 

I  am, 

Your  sincere  friend, 

J.  L.  Carlyle. 


CORRESPONDENCE.  43 

Let  me  hear  from  you  soon,  and  believe  me, 

Your  affectionate 

Uncle  John. 

This  signature  would  be  better  if  written 

Your  affectionate  uncle, 

John  Smith. 

Sentences  sucli  as  tlie  above  usually  begin  with  the 
participle,  to  avoid  the  repetition  of  the  pronoun  I. 

Although  such  sentences  are  in  general  favor  as  af- 
fording a  graceful  finish  and  preventing  abruptness,  yet 
it  is  not  necessary,  or  advisable  even,  to  use  them  always. 

It  is  in  exceedingly  poor  taste  to  use  such  endings  as, 
"  As  I  have  nothing  more  to  say,  I  will  now  close,"  or 
"I  must  stop  now,  as  I  want  to  go  to  make  a  call,"  or 
even  "I  will  now  close."  But  bad  as  these  are,  it  is 
even  worse  to  begin  a  letter,  "  As  I  have  nothing  else 
to  do,  I  will  write,"  or  "  I  thought  I  would  answer 
your  letter,"  or  "I  sit  down,"  or  "I  take  my  pen  in 
hand."  Such  phrases  seem  impertinent,  when  not 
utterly  senseless. 

The  following  examples  of  conclusions,  taken  at  ran- 
dom from  Mendelssohn's  letters  to  Moscheles,  show  how 
the  conclusion  may  vary  according  to  occasion  or  cir- 
cumstance. 

May  we  meet  in  health  and  happiness,  and  may  you  be  as  kindly 
disposed  as  ever  to 

Yours, 

Felix  Mendelssohn  Barthokly. 


And  now  farewell  and  fare  ever  well. 

Yours, 


44  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

My  best  wishes  accompany  you  on  what  I  trust  will  be  a  happy 
and  pleasant  journey. 

Yours  ever, 


And  trusting  you  will  preserve  a  kind  remembrance  of  me,  1 
remain, 

Yours  most  sincerely, 


My  love  to  Emily  and  Serena,  and  may  you  and  Moscheles  be 
as  well  and  as  happy  as  I  wish  you  to  be. 

Yours, 


For  to-day,  good-by.     And  more  thanks  and  —  hurrah,  you  are 
coming ! 

Ever  yours. 


In  addressing  an  envelope  care  should  be  taken  to 
write  the  abbreviation  of  the  name  of  the  state  dis- 
tinctly as  well  as  properly.  N.J.  may  be  easily  mistaken 
for  N.Y. 

Never  write  out  one  part  of  a  compound  name  when 
you  abbreviate  the  other.  The  name  should  be  written 
West  Virginia  or  abbreviated  W.  Va. ;  South  Carolina 
or  S.C. ;  New  Mexico  or  N.M. ;  etc.  In  the  case  of 
towns  and  villages,  it  is  advisable  to  add  the  name  of 
the  county.  If  the  address  is  a  foreign  one,  the  name 
of  the  country  should  be  added.  In  addressing  a  firm, 
do  not  forget  the  prefix  of  courtesy;  as, 

Tfl&Q^VQ.,  dnyyvo-tcC,  ^cyyta'taAt&,  If  (^., 

BvaacOw-OAf  a/yucL  /^th  oft-, 

c/lf&w-  l/o-xh  (^Itu. 


CORRESPONDENCE.  45 

The  superscription  on  an  envelope,  like  tlie  title- 
page  of  a  book,  may  be  written  entirely  without  punc- 
tuation except  in  the  case  of  abbreviations.  This  form 
is  preferred  by  many  writers  of  the  highest  standing. 
Tnere  should,  however,  be  no  mixing  of  the  two  styles. 
Either  leave  out  all  punctuation  or  punctuate  fully. 

The  following  are  forms  of  correct  superscriptions  on 
envelopes : 

jucCat'  cAo-a.k  ^a^vAJi^, 

c/te/nf-  llavh  ^itM. 

When  the  name  of  a  city  is  the  same  as  the  state,  the 
name  need  not  be  I'epeated. 

2/3  Tnauv  ^t., 

It  is  not  necessary  or  proper  to  add  D.D.  or  M.D.  or 
D.D.S.  or  LL.D.,  as  the  case  may  be,  when  the  title  Dr.  is  prefixed 
to  the  name. 

When  an  additional  address  is  to  be  given,  as  the  name 
of  a  suburb  or  of  a  country  place,  as  in  the  above,  it  gives  the 
superscription  a  more  symmetrical  appearance  to  place  it  at  the 
lower  left  corner. 


46  STUDIES   IN    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

EXERCISE   I. 

Write  five  Headings. 

Follow  carefully  the  arrangement  and  punctuation  of  the  models 
given.     Write  abbreviations  con-ectly. 

Write  five  Introductions. 

Address  a  stranger,  a  firm,  a  college  president,  an  intimate 
friend,  a  relative. 

Write  five  Conclusions. 

Let  these  include  the  last  sentence,  the  phrase  which  introduces 
the  close,  the  complimentary  close,  and  the  signature.  Make  them 
as  widely  different  as  possible. 

Write  five  Superscriptions. 

Be  careful  to  have  a  symmetrical  arrangement  on  the  envelope, 
use  abbreviations  correctly,  and  punctuate  according  to  the  models 
given. 


LESSON  XVII.-LETTEES  OE  EEIENDSHIP. 

Simplicity  and  naturalness  are  the  chief  requisites  in 
this  Icind  of  writing,  but  the  rule,  "  Write  as  you  speak 
and  think  and  feel,"  which  is  sometimes  laid  down  as 
a  means  of  securing  this  effect,  is  one  to  be  followed 
with  strong  modifications. 

In  speech,  for  instance,  we  use  certain  contracted  and 
other  expressions  termed  colloquialisms  which  are  un- 
suited  to,  and  would  seem  undignified  in,  written  com- 
munications. Therefore  it  may  be  stated  as  a  rule, 
that,  in  writing,  one  must 

Avoid  OoUoquialmns. 


CORRESPONDENCE.  47 

The  voice,  manner,  and  expression  modify  to  such  an 
incalculable  degree  our  spoken  words,  that  in  a  con- 
versation we  may  safely  give  voice  to  thoughts  and 
opinions  which,  if  confined  to  the  bare,  unmodified 
statement  suited  to  the  limits  of  a  letter,  might  give 
unpardonable  offence.  Therefore  it  may  be  stated  as  a 
second  rule,  that 

Grreat  care  and  moderation  should  be  used  in  the  written 
expression  of  our  thoughts  and  opiniotis. 

Again,  to  write  what  one  feels  may  be  most  injudi- 
cious. This  does  not  apply  to  cordiality,  interest,  grati- 
tude, or  any  other  of  the  nobler  sentiments  —  if  you 
cherish  these,  be  sure  to  write  in  the  spirit  of  them ;  but 
do  not  write  complaining  letters.  Moderate  the  ex- 
pression of  cares  or  anxieties  or  sorrows,  when  it  is 
necessary  to  touch  upon  them ;  when  it  is  not  abso- 
lutely necessary,  leave  them  to  be  divined.  A  con- 
siderate reticence  in  such  matters  wins  deeper  sympathy 
than  any  amount  of  complaining  could  do. 

Do  not  write  angry  or  resentful  letters ;  you  will  be 
sure  to  say  something  to  be  deeply  regretted  if  you  do. 
Write  guardedly  when  you  feel  strongly  on  any  pain- 
ful subject,  and  above  all 

Do  not  write  ivhen  laboring  under  any  great  excitement. 

Since  a  letter  of  friendship  is  a  conversation  on  paper, 
you  should  write  in  an  easy,  familiar  manner  of  the 
things  about  which  you  would  naturally  talk  to  the  per- 
son to  whom  you  are  writing. 

Study  to  write  gracefully  as  well  as  naturally.  Avoid 
the  monotony  that  comes  from  sentences  all  based  on 
one  model.  Above  all,  do  not  appear  to  be  thinking 
constantly  of  yourself. 


48  STUDIES    IN    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


LIST   OF   SUBJECTS  FOR   LETTERS   OF  FRIENDSHIP. 

Write  to  a  friend  living  at  a  distance,  inviting  her 
to  visit  yoii. 

It  is  best  to  state  the  length  of  the  visit,  —  a  fortniglit  perhaps. 
Inform  her  as  to  trains,  enclose  a  time-table,  indicating  the  most 
convenient  train ;  state  that  you  will  meet  her  at  the  station. 
Write  cordially  but  not  effusively. 

Write,  accepting  an  invitation  like  the  above. 

State  on  what  day  and  by  what  train  you  will  arrive. 

Write  home  from  your  friend's  house. 

It  is  absolutely  indispensable  to  write  at  once  to  advise  your  par- 
ents of  your  safe  arrival.  Share  with  those  at  home  the  pleasure 
of  your  journey ;  give  interesting  incidents  of  the  trip,  and  tell  of 
your  reception  at  your  friend's  home. 

Write  to  your  friends  on  returning  home  from  a 
visit. 

It  is  due  to  your  friends  that  you  write  promptly.  Write  of  your 
visit  and  the  pleasure  it  afforded  you,  —  be  sincere  and  cordial.  Do 
not  forget  messages  of  regard  to  the  family. 

Write,  declining  an  invitation. 

Write,  expressing  your  appreciation  of  yovir  friend's  kindness. 
A  letter  of  regret  needs  to  be  even  more  cordial  than  an  acceptance. 

Write  a  letter  home  on  reaching  college  or  school. 

Give  all  the  incidents  of  the  journey  and  your  first  impressions 
and  experiences.  Such  a  letter  should  be  written  at  the  earliest 
opportunity  after  arriving. 

Write  a  Christmas  letter  to  a   friend    or   absent 
member  of  the  family. 


CORRESPONDENCE.  49 

Write  a  journal  letter  while  on  a  business  trip. 
Write  to  a  schoolmate  who  is  absent  from  school. 

Describe  some  school  entertainment. 

Write  to  your  teacher,  explaining  jour  absence. 

Express  your  regret  politely.     Ask  where  your  lessons  are. 

Write  to  a  friend  in  Florida. 

Ask  for  information  as  to  climate,  hotels,  etc. 

Write  a  letter  to  a  child. 

Write  of  the  tilings  that  will  be  most  likely  to  interest  him,  and 
use  such  language  as  he  can  easily  understand. 


LESSON  XVIII. -NOTES  OP  CEEEMONY. 

Under  this  heading  may  be  classed  notes  of  invita- 
tion, acceptance,  and  regret,  both  formal  and  informal. 

Informal  invitations,  acceptances,  and  regrets  are 
simply  friendly  notes  written  always  in  the  first  person. 
They  vary  in  form  to  suit  the  occasion.  They  should 
be  cordial  in  tone,  but  brief,  and  are  in  better  taste 
when  confined  to  the  subject  of  the  invitation,  outside 
items  being  permissible  only  under  special  circum- 
stances which  may  require  their  mention. 

An  informal  invitation  should  never,  under  any  cir- 
cumstances, be  answered  in  the  third  person. 


50  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

EXAMPLES  OF  INFORMAL  NOTES. 

oO-vtl  yau  fiat  (jiA>-e^  10^  tk&  '^leyOMAiA.e'  at  uauv 
eoni'^i^amA^  at  oAyyvyi&v,  om,  3~kwL^cLa,u  e.v-&'^^L'^^q  'yt£/?ct,  at 
a^&v-EAV  0-'  <s.ta&Jo  ?  Tflva^  fSavu/natan  at  ^ane-avcl  Ui-  cywi 
(ju&Mj  pyo  Oy  ^fvcnZ  tiArv&,  a^ncC  w-&  a^v&  iy^^v-vtC'yla  a^  t&w- 
YWe/yicl^  to-  cli/)t&  iv-vt/v  -u^  cy)^  Qj~A.WLQ^cCa.u  to-  ')}v&&t  h&v, 
"VO-xXA  Q^i/yi&'&i&  'b&aa.'icU^, 

i}&vu  e^a^LcCtyattu  uaux^, 


<Jt  n/iMytt  (^vv-a  'YH-&  tk&  (fv&att%t  ja-t&OA^zubey  to-  cUyyie, 
waJJv  i^oio  o^yv  oikwi^cta/u  'ne/?ct  oavcC  'vyve&t  uauv  pvC&'WcC 
?y(iA^  Bo'ViiAtatan,.       lS&ti&v-&  'YK>&  aZav-OAi^, 

32  gaol  6(^Uv  ^t.  Sttem.  ^.  foAyvuxyn.. 


I'J'lu  deav  c4'&ttv&, 

€.TAA^  ?}1.acfa<^wyv&  (S^Ciitp,  li^kte^lv  c/  qXaZI  ko4i^>  to 
nav-&  yo^  ^'oiAv,  w-\l.t  'yn&eZ  at  atcv  /tauQ.&  aru  ne/xit 
Ci^&cl-ne-a^cCau,  at  tn.ie&  o' eZoeJc.  c/  w-xaJv  v-^vu  WAi^h 
that  y.O'U  w-au^tct  &0'vru&  ayyicl  '\fve,et  th&  ^Tve^yyulyeA^.  <J 
hvunif-  tAat  w-keAi^  yo-io  j^vncl  w-kat  i/nt&v&atX'yva  avvi^ 
tk&u  a/v&,  ucHo  w-v(Z  iv-a/}tt  to  io-i/yi  uo/. 

/ro^iAtcjf  to  Q.&&  'uo%o  an,  'W^&d'yv&a'ctaAf,  <J  ve^yrupii/yv, 

TMyuAA,  cl&v-at&cllu, 
27  rC  ijtxs&t,  ^cLttk  S'a^^A^n^. 

^&e,£/)yv6-&v  20,  /8^/. 


CORRESPONDENCE.  51 

em,cpxie^yyv&yit  jsA^v-emAA/  'yyvu  ay&^&^ti/na  ■uo-iov  k/XAvci  (a^v-C- 
tatvatv  to-  ■yyv&&t  Ui&  i-n^f-w^^e-tfi/  at  tk&  TyiaMO/xvyie^  (S^tuO- 
at  ucywv  hcyitQy&  cyyv  IM&cCn^&a^cCciA^  ntoct.  c/  O'lm^eAy&Ou  'i&q'v&t 
'vyvia^rui  UtUi/  aJB'ji^vtAi/yiiXM  to  'm.&eZ  ucyuA^  ixAy&ncU,,  {yut 
tvti^  t/tcit  vt  iA^  cyyitu  a^  ^t&a,QA<A^  clel&vv&cC. 

Sv-&v  ucnvv  ivv&nci, 
(AAtxyyiato-'yv  /if&LaAt^,  freZeAV  0Q/yyuyyvcC. 


687  ^uh/^e^  (Zv-£AVU^. 

S'kt'  {xyu^  o-i  awb  €.utin^  ^tu(>'  clv&  jsytammAynxf  a 
pioJiuyia  e/x^ti/iQAxyyi  to  €AA>toru  JLak/&  on  ^atywulad^  'yve/xt, 
arut  lAOiv  0^16'  (bovcii.aX-uu,  tmv-lZ&cL  to-  jovrv  tea-. 

^o  a.cLu  tkcCt  uoio  ^if-vtt  M-nL&.      <Jt  iMno  tUcey,  <J 

waLL  e^aZl  tov  uo^o  o^  rtuu  w-OA-t  to  tk&   (^a-rttiat  M^tjsyot 

at  f  CL.Tn.  7, 

iMHiA^  a^  eA}-&v, 

TyioM  /3,  /8'J/ .  3'koyyuxQy  L.  ^oAAytoxyyi. 


Jb^&OA^  S'oyyv, 

^t  exyuA>Qy&  c/  oAxteAiL,    a/yuL  tinX^k   tk&   ave^aZmL 

js^teyOAAiA^e^;  tk&  iyrwZtatuyn^  to  jouw  tk&  ^tiZi/yuf  ^wiiA' &, 

tioAiAva  E/XySAAAAAxyyv  07V  ofatAinjctaA^.      <Jt  t^  u&i/i^  (jooci  oj- 

tk&yyu  to  oaJo  Oyrv  "  o^utM/cC&v/ '  oaixL  vL  Ui^  am^  cuLcUXAxyyvOyi 

kA/KcL'yi&a^  iyyv  uoto  to  s^alt  ixyv  'Wu&.      <J  o^kciit  6-&(^vn>  oL 

o^yve^^  to  too^  «^  'mAf  txMJct&,  0,710/  ■nf-tCt  {y-&  alt  i&aaA^, 

w-ke/yi  uou  (uyvne/.  a,  « 

'  &i/yKS/e%eVu  uou^a,, 

/6  €.ah  ^t.,  f^t&koAzt  ^'mltk. 

TyioAf  /3,  /8q/. 


52  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

LIST  OF  SUBJECTS  FOR  NOTES   OF  CEREMONY. 

Write  an  infoniuil  invitation  to  a  birtliday  party ;  acceptance; 
regret. 

An  informal  invitation  to  a  card  party,  a  tennis  party  or  archery 
meet ;  acceptance  ;  regret. 

An  informal  invitation  to  a  dancing  class ;  acceptance ;  regret. 

An  informal  invitation  to  a  children's  party ;  acceptance ;  regret. 

An  informal  invitation  to  a  dinner ;  acceptance  ;  i"egret. 


LESSON  XIX.  — FOEMAL  NOTES  OP  OEEEMONT. 

Formal  notes  are  always  expressed  in  the  third  person, 
and  all  answers  to  such  should  correspond  in  form  and 
style. 

Although  invitations  to  large  affairs  are  usually  printed 
from  engraved  plates,  a  few  forms  are  here  given,  prin- 
cipally to  show  the  correct  forms  of  reply  to  the  several 
kinds  of  invitation. 

MODELS. 

Invitation  to  a  reception. 

TViv.    cind  Tyit^.    ^AaA.t&ay   £.    fi^chXA.vyicjton 

(yyv   tS^kuva^clo/u  &v-£mAyna,    c/fcyi>-&'nv{>'&v    temLrv, 
pLcynv  &vaJvC  unZvt  &teA>-&^  a'&taeA^. 

If  the  reception  is  to  be  followed  by  dancing,  the  word 
"  Dancing  "  is  placed  at  the  lower  left  corner. 


CORRESPONDENCE.  53 

In  an  invitation  to  a  dancing  party  the  hours  are  not 
limited,  as  in  a  reception  ;  the  form  is  as  follows  :  — 

Tf'Jv.  a/>%cL  iTixAy.    (S^kdvt&ih  jC.   /i-aA.i.tmqtcyyi 

o-n   dhAiXA'ctcvu   ^u^ruiAzii,    ^a/ytua-vy    tvif-&Clt/v, 
at  tvvn&  a'e^to-eA,. 
^cM'vedAu^  at  &t&v-£m..  S'^6  Spilth   Ctv-&mo&. 

Such  invitations  do  not,  as  a  rule,  have  the  year  stated. 

All  invitations  should  be  promptly  answered.  Cus- 
tom dictates  .this,  and  consideration  requires  it.  The 
forms  of  acceptance  and  regret  to  all  such  invitations 
are  as  follows  :  — 

7?ftW   Sudi^m,    /ifatt 

Tfth.   ayyict  ?Vih^.    (^kaaZeA^   JL.    fia^wimatcyn/ O/ 

i/^^v-Ltatva9V   to-v   cJ hnAA^cLan^,   &v~emAA'Ui, 

^e^£Ayv6-&h  &LaAte'&nZA. 

OR, 

Tyii^ydy   Sv-ttyyi   /ifaXt 

'b&cj\^A^  t'lat  a  yiiv&w.xH<^  &'yiaaa&'m-&nt 

^lA^v-eAtta^  keA^  ae^&'^iZa/yL^&  at 

/yiv.  OAtcl  iTlvQj.    (^ftaA,t&Q,   jC.    fi-a/UbLnqt/yn,' q, 

vnAHAMA.vcyn'  tcyv   jAtox^clau  e^v-e/yivn-q, 

^£^e/my6-£Ay  &iq/it&eAiJL/v. 

It  is  usually  neither  convenient  nor  advisable  to  give  the  exact 
reason  for  declining  an  invitation,  and  therefore  "regrets  that  a 


54  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

previous  engagement "  is  the  accepted  form  to  signify  one's  ina- 
bility, from  any  cause  whatever,  to  accept.  By  some  the  preference 
is  given  to  the  expression,  "regrets  her  inability  to  accept." 

The  phrases,  "  presents  her  compliments,"  "  kind  invitation," 
"  sincerely  regrets,"  and  similar  expressions,  are  no  longer  used  in 
formal  notes. 

In  a  dinner  invitation  the  name  of  the  guest, — 
"Miss  Evelyn  Hall,"  for  instance,  —  is  placed  instead 
of  "your"  before  the  word  "company." 

TVlv.    amcL  I'JIz^.   ^kaa.ttA'  L.    /ifoAA^tnatcyyv 

TVlio^   (ov-elu-yv   fi-a.tt'o'  exyvyujiM/yiu 

^e^e^n/^-a/i    iiitk,    /S<^/ ,  at  a^&u&n>  a'e^ta^. 

It  is  an  unpardonable  offence  to  delay,  for  any  reason  whatever, 
sending  an  immediate  answer  to  a  dinner  invitation. 

The  forms  of  reply  are  as  follows  :  — 

TVliAA'  Sv-eZyyi  fi-a,tt 

TVlv.   OAVcL  TyivQ,.    (^koAl&Q^  Jl.   /'fcLW'L')tatcyyv' d^ 
iyyiv-ttati-o-rv  to-  covyin&v  a-t  a'&v-e^^  a' eytae^rO, 

OR, 

TViiAA^   €v-eL'mt   /fatt 

'Vtavtt^  tA(xt  a  'p,i&v-vaio^  EAi^aacfeArutinC 

4iA,eA>e/yvt^  keA-  a.&€&jiitcbns^&   aj-, 

tte^. 


CORRESPONDENCE.  55 

Observe  that  although  the  date  for  which  one  is  invited  is 
always  repeated  in  the  answer,  the  answer  is  not  itself  dated,  as 
it  is  in  other  correspondence. 

The  fashion  of  forming  sociables,  germans,  dancing 
classes,  etc.,  which  meet  at  the  houses  of  the  members, 
is  a  prevalent  social  custom.  The  form  of  invitation  is 
usually  as  follows :  — 

3^k&  ^eya^/iub&  at   uatw  e^a^n/fiuwuu 

tO'  t&mc£4iX&c6  at  tk&  ne^^dC 

S^t(yux,t   ^eAy'vyvam,, 

at   Aatt-'fiu;i'it   eurJit   o-' &taiSyh. 
R.  O'.  1>.  ^.  dOO   ?T(culCay(y)i^   (Zv-&■7^u&. 


The  abbreviation,  R.s.v.p.  —  Repondez  s'il  vuus  plait,  —  is 
used  only  in  such  invitations.  It  is  taken  for  granted  in  a 
direct  personal  invitation  that  you  will  not  commit  the  social  error 
of  omitting  to  reply.  ' 

The  English  phrase,  "  The  favor  of  an  answer  is  requested,"  is 
by  many  preferred  to  the  French  expression. 

The  answers  to  invitations  like  the  above  must  be 
impersonal  in  form  to  correspond  with  the  invitation  :  — 

?7ii.    ^A'OAi/ney   j.    cfton& 

w-itt  ta^&  4iZ&aAA0'i,&   vn,  ()-&vnc^  yc/i&^emt 

at  th&  S^to-iat   ^SA^yyva/yi 

on  TyiancLoAi  tv-em^l/yiq,    ^&&e/yyU>-&^   O'VxZrv. 

OR, 

TTIv.    ^Aazone/u   ^.    oftcyyte 
'UyO/i&Ca.   kCo'   Cna^tiAJyu  to   (>-&  ^yu^e/nt, 


56  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMrOSITION. 

As  afternot)ii  receptions,  variously  designated  accord- 
ing to  changing  fashions,  require  for  invitations  the 
visiting-card  only,  with  date  and  hours  added  at  the 
lower  left  corner,  they  are  regarded  as  scarcely  more 
than  special  reception  days,  and  therefore  do  not  require 
a  note  of  acceptance  or  regret  in  answer,  the  acknowl- 
edgment being  the  leaving  of  cards  by  those  who  attend, 
or  the  sending  of  cards  on  or  before  the  day  by  those 
who  do  not  attend. 

Theatre,  card,  tennis,  and  arcliery  parties,  being  of  much  less 
formal  character  than  the  foregoing,  the  invitations  and  replies  are 
usually  written  in  the  first  person. 

EXERCISE. — CLASS    WORK. 

Write  on  note  paper  acceptances  and  regrets  for  each  of  the 
above  or  similar  invitations. 

SUGGESTIONS    TO  THE  WRITER. 

In  writing  answers  to  invitations  observe  great  care  to  arrange 
the  matter  symmetrically  and  in  the  middle  of  the  first  page  of  a 
sheet  of  note  paper.  Place  your  own  name  on  a  line  by  itself,  and 
in  the  middle  of  the  line  ;  observe  these  directions,  also,  in  regard  to 
the  name  of  the  host  and  hostess.  Repeat  in  your  answer,  as  in 
the  models  given,  the  items  as  to  date,  hour,  etc.,  of  the  invitation. 


LESSON  XX.  -  BUSINESS  AND  OFEIOIAL  LETTERS. 

Business  letters  should  be  concise,  explicit.,  and  cour- 
teous. The  information  given  or  desired  should  be  stated 
in  the  fewest  possible  words.  All  social  and  friendly 
items  should  be  rigidly  excluded. 


COERESPONDENCB.  57 

Though  a  business  letter  should  be  brief,  it  need  not  be 
abrupt.  Abruptness  in  even  the  briefest  letter  may  be 
avoided  by  due  attention  to  the  salutation  and  compli- 
mentary close. 

If  a  business  letter  be  an  answer  to  one  received,  ref- 
erence should  be  made  to  the  letter  in  question,  its  date 
given,  and  enclosures,  if  any,  acknoAvledged.  If  money 
is  received,  it  should  be  counted  immediately  on  opening 
the  letter. 

Business  letters  should  be  written  on  one  side  of  the 
paper  only,  and  it  is  a  good  plan  to  keep  copies.  Dates 
and  sums  should  be  written  plainly  in  figures. 

When  a  letter  on  one's  own  business  requires  an  answer,  a  stamp 
should  be  enclosed.  In  business  letters  the  date  and  address  of 
writer  should  always  be  placed  at  the  head  of  the  letter. 

FORMS  OF  BUSINESS  LETTERS. 

2/8   ^w^&tvo-h   oft., 

fidj  3,  /8(f/. 

cA&w-   Z/o^vh  (^il/u, 

^tm,tt&ryLeA^  :     Z/.o-ivv  t&Ct&v  o-l  tk&  f'Jtlv  utt. 

(Body  of  the  letter.) 

u&vu    tiActu    UatlAM', 

If.    /-f.    $fyn,itk   V   <^, 


58  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

/23   S^o-iovUh  Clv-&7tu&,    c/te/w-   l^a^k/   ^ItAf. 

(Ztb-a.'yvu ,    cA.   y^. , 

M^&OA^  <^vv  :    <Jn  'L£/i&'L&ns^&  to  ucyu/u  e^o'Tn- 
'y}vumyVe^tuy)'v  at,    &t&. 

(Body  of  the  letter.) 

/6t^i/?i-^  t/i&  j'CM^cyv  at  am/  &aA,tu  i&^tu,  <J  lEAfuoAyyv, 

TJattA.O'  txnitu, 

If.   £..   jont^. 

Take  special   notice   of   the   relative  positions  of  the  parts  of 
the  headings  and  conclusions,  and  of  the  punctuation. 

^t/a-£y   /lfauQy&,    c^e/i^i^-   Ziavk/, 

m\^.    d.    (o.    /dhowm^,  ' 

^&aA.   Tl'l.chcLa.w  :     'l{}'&   6-&a   to-   a,(iJc'yiawZ&cla&   tke 
'L&&-&iAit   at  uavA/  t&Lt&v  e'risZaa-una  uau-v  &kE&k/  tai,  ete-. 

(Body  of  the  letter.) 


VoiaM^cw  ^attt,(j&,  jcuyi.  23,  ISCfl. 
THIq^  ^ount'  ^o.vfi^t'yviEA/, 

(Dn&toQy&cC  ^t&a^&  tvncL  a^  eAAMAA/ta^v,    eLc'-. 

(Body  of  the  letter.) 

liauVQy  tvwOu, 

/{-.    fC.    BtamJo, 

^&eA.eta^vu. 


CORRESPONDENCE,  59 

^0-   tk&   RicfAt   R&V-.    BUJva^   al   o'fe'Z^    Vavh, 
Ri<^kt   ReA}-,    qICv  : 

(Body  of  the  letter.) 

c/  kciv-ey  tk&  hanav  to   (>■& 

f'f.    f.    cfcynviA^, 
&&&.  /i-am&  ?flia^to-nQy. 

In  official  correspondence  the  office  is  addressed  rather  than  the 
officer,  and  the  complimentary  close  is  more  formal  than  in  ordinary 
business  letters.  When  one  writes  in  a  strictly  official  capacity,  the 
official  title  must  follow  immediately  after  the  signature,  as  in  the 
above. 

^  Idan/heAA^,  cA.  Ti.,  THoa^  / ,   /8^/. 

dfv&   BaoAxl  at   SclAi/B^atLan  a/i^L 

cJA&   &■uyll■&^,i/}^t&ncl&nt  at   S^cUie^aZva^, 

'&£/yitteA7u&7v :  ZV-&,  tk&  uncl&vO'Varv&cl,  6-&a  te,cLv-&  ta 
e^vtt  uaiov  atteAitian,  ta,   eZa^, 

(Body  of  the  letter.) 

CCtt  at  w-kv&/i  uiy  i&a/^&etlultu  oAi^iyynltt&cC, 

ja/vyv   of'vrLvLk, 

In  business  letters  the  number  of  the  month  is  sometimes  used 
instead  of  the  name;  as  -"'/o   1891,  instead  of  May  2,  1891. 


60  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 


LIST  OF  SUBJECTS   FOE  BUSINESS  LETTERS. 

Write  to  a  dry  goods  fir  in,  requesting  samples  of  a  certain 
material. 

Write,  ordering  materials  from  sample,  and  enclosing  payment 
either  in  check,  P.O.  order,  or  cash. 

Write  to  publishing  firm,  asking  for  catalogues  and  for  informa- 
tion about  certain  books. 

Write,  ordering  books. 

Write,  applying  for  a  position  as  clerk,  salesman,  or  teacher. 

Write  in  answer  to  the  above. 

AVrite,  as  secretary  of  a  society,  club,  or  business  organization, 
to  the  members,  announcing  an  executive  committee  meeting;  a 
general  meeting ;  an  event  to  take  place. 

Write  as  treasurer  of  the  above,  requesting  payment  of  dues; 
announcing  assessments  or  dividends. 

Write  to  a  stranger,  asking  information  in  regard  to  a  former 
employee  of  that  person. 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  THE  WRITER. 

The  following  directions  are  copied  verbatim  from  the  official 
circular  issued  by  the  Post  Office  Department. 

How  to  prepare  matter  for  mailing.  —  See  that  every  letter, 
newspapei-,  or  other  packet  sent  by  mail,  is  securely  folded  and 
fastened.  Avoid  using  cheap  envelopes,  made  of  thin  paper, 
especially  whei'e  more  than  one  sheet  of  paper,  or  any  other  article 
than  paper,  is  enclosed.  Being  often  handled,  and  even  in  the 
mail  bags  subjected  to  pressure,  such  envelopes  not  unfrequently 
split  open,  often  giving  cause  of  complaint  against  officials  who  are 
entirely  innocent  in  the  matter. 

All  packages  mailed  at  less  than  letter  rates  of  postage  should 
be  wrapped  so  that  their  contents  can  be  readily  ascertained  with- 
out destroying  the  wrapper.  Matter  contained  in  sealed  envelopes 
notched  at  the  ends  defeats  the  object  of  the  law,  and  is  subject  to 
letter  postage. 

Have  addresses  legible  and  complete.  —  Make  the  address 
on  all  matter  legible  and  complete,  giving  the  name  of  the  post- 
office,  county,  and  State.  The  name  of  the  street  and  number  of  the 
house  should  also  be  given  on  mail-matter  addressed  to  cities  where 
letter-carriers  are  employed. 

Where  to  place  postage  stamps.  — Postage  stamps  should  be 
placed  on  the  upper  right-hand  corner  of  the  address  side  of  all 
mail-matter. 


NARRATION    AND    DESCRIPTION    COMBINED.  61 


CHAPTER   VI. 
N ABE  AT  10  M  AMI)  DESCRIPTIOM  COMBIKEB. 

Although  in  narration  there  is  often  something  of  de- 
scription, and  in  description  something  of  narration,  in 
the  preceding  lessons  the  effort  has  been,  to  emphasize  one 
or  the  other.  In  the  lessons  of  this  chapter  the  pupil  is 
to  take  either  or  both  styles,  according  as  the  subject  sug- 
gests. 


LESSON  XXI.  -  ANNIVEESAEY  DAYS. 

EXERCISE   I.  —  MODEL   FOR    STUDY. 
THANKSGIVING   DAY. 

The  fields  are  stripped  by  this  time  and  the  trees 
stand  bare.  That  rich  murmur  of  a  myriad  insects  is 
gone,  and  the  silence,  which  distinguishes  January  from 
June  even  more  than  the  heat,  falls,  the  precursor  of 
s,no\\,  upon  the  landscape.  But,  as  if  to  resist  the  bit- 
terness and  sadness  of  the  failing  year,  the  most  genial 
and  kindly  of  all  our  festivals,  occurs  at  the  end  of 
November.  Its  veiy  name,  Thanksgiving,  betrays  its 
origin  —  an  origin  unmixed  with  any  prior  tradition. 

The  great  Christian  festival  of  Christmas  stretches 
backward  to  yule-logs  and  mistletoes,  to  Scandinavian 
and  Briton  heathenry ;  nor  does  it  lose  by  the  graceful, 


62  STUDIES    IN   ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

happy  association.  But  Thanksgiving  is  purely  Puri- 
tan. It  is  the  good,  warm,  human  heart  conquering  the 
toucfh  head  and  ascetic  manner  of  the  old  Pilgrims. 

In  Elliot's  New  England  History  you  may  read  that 
in  1623,  after  the  harvest,  Governor  Bradstreet  sent  out 
a  company  to  shoot  game  to  furnish  a  dainty  feast  of 
rejoicing  after  the  labors  of  the  colony.  Having  fol- 
lowed the  directions  of  the  governor  and  the  principle 
of  the  excellent  Mrs.  Glass,  they  cooked  their  game, 
and  invited  Massasoit  and  some  ninety  other  savages, 
and  all  fell  to  and  devoured  the  feast,  thanking  God 
"for  the  good  world  and  the  good  things  in  it."  — 
George  William  Curtis. 

LIST  OF  SUBJECTS. 

Christmas. 

Derivation  of  name  —  when  first  celebrated  on  present  date  — 
why?  Ancient  festivals  held  at  same  time  of  year  in  Italy  and 
Scandinavia.  Onr  Christmas  customs  —  Christmas  tree — Christ- 
mas games  — St.  Nicholas  —  Santa  Claus.  Christmas  customs  in 
other  countries  —  Christmas  legends  —  Christmas  stories. 

New  Year's  Day. 

Early  Dutch  customs  —  making  calls  —  observance  of  New  Year 
here  and  in  other  countries. 

Washington's  Birthday. 

Common  observance  of  the  day.  Sketch  of  Washington  —  his 
life  and  achievements. 

"  Washington  did  the  two  greatest  things  which  in  politics  it  is  permitted 
to  man  to  attempt.  He  maintained  by  peace  the  independence  of  his  coun- 
try which  he  conquered  by  war."  —  G?nzo<. 

"  You  are  the  only  being  for  whom  I  have  an  awful  reverence."  —  iorci 
Erskine. 

"  Until  time  shall  be  no  more,  will  a  test  of  the  progress  which  our  race 
has  made  in  wisdom  and  virtue  be  derived  from  the  veneration  paid  to  the 
immortal  name  of  Washington."  —  Lord  Bronr/Jumi. 


NARRATION    AND    DESCRIPTION    COMBINED.  03 

Easter. 

A  movable  festival  —  feast  of  flowers — commemorative  of  the 
resurrection  of  Christ.  Easter  legends  —  Easter  emblems  —  Easter 
observances  —  Easter  poems. 

The  Fourth  of  July.         St.  Patrick's  Day. 
Thanksgiving  Day.  The  Quiet  Anniversaries. 

Decoration  Day.  The  Noisy  Anniversaries. 

St.  Valentine's  Day.  Poems    and    Legends    of 

Christmas. 


LESSON  XXII.  -  AMPLinOATION  OF  POEMS. 

EXERCISE  I.  —  MODEL  FOR   STUDY  AND  AMPLIFICATION. 

THE  SANDS   O'   DEE. 

"  Oh,  Mary,  go  and  call  the  cattle  home, 

And  call  the  cattle  home, 

And  call  the  cattle  home, 

Across  the  sands  o'  Dee  !  " 
The  western  wind  was  wild  and  dank  wi'  foam. 

And  all  alone  went  she. 

The  creeping  tide  came  up  along  the  sand. 

And  o'er  and  o'er  the  .sand, 

And  round  and  round  the  sand, 

As  far  as  eye  could  see ; 
The  blinding  mist  came  down  and  hid  the  land : 

And  never  home  came  she. 

"  O,  is  it  weed,  or  fish,  or  floating  hair,  — 

A  tress  o'  golden  hair, 

O'  drowned  maiden's  hair, — 

Above  the  nets  at  sea  ? 
Was  never  salmon  yet  that  shone  so  fair 

Among  the  stakes  on  Dee." 


64  STUDIES    IN    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

They  rowed  her  in  iutoss  ilio  rolling  foam,  — 

'I'he  cruel,  erawliiig  foam, 

The  cruel,  hungry  i'oain, — 

To  her  grave  l)esiJe  the  sea; 
But  still  the  boatmen  hear  her  call  the  cattle  home, 

Across  the  sands  o'  Dee.  —  Charles  Kingsley. 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  THE  WRITER. 

In  this  poem  are  really  two  stories,  —  one  story  that  is  told,  another 
that  is  suggested.  In  order  to  tell  the  story  that  is  cuggested,  you 
need  to  use  your  imagination.  Imagine  the  fisherman's  cottage; 
describe  it ;  describe  the  family ;  tell  what  Mary  was  doing  when 
she  was  called  to  go  after  the  cows ;  whether  she  went  willingly  or 
not.  Describe  two  ways  that  she  might  have  gone,  one  around  by 
a  bridge,  another  across  the  sands  —  why  she  chose  the  sands. 
The  fog  —  her  confidence  —  her  fear  when  she  stepped  into  the 
water  —  her  struggles  to  find  the  way. 

Tell  what  happened  at  the  cottage  w^ien  she  did  not  return  — 
the  frantic  search  —  despair  slowly  settling  on  father  and  mother 
—  finding  of  the  body  —  the  burial — the  sailors'  superstition. 

LIST  OF  POEMS  FOR   SIMILAR   AMPLIFICATION. 

The  Mistletoe  Bough Thomas  H.  Bayley. 

The  Three  Fishers Charles  Kingsley. 

How's  My  Boy? Sidney  Dobell. 

The  Gray  Swan Alice  Cary. 


LESSON  XXIII.  -  IMAGINATIVE  STORIES. 

EXERCISE    I. MODEL    FOll    REPRODUCTION. 

THE    GENEROUS    CLOUD. 

"  All  things  are  beautiful  to-night  except  myself,"  said 

a  dull  creeping  Mist  that  hovered  over  a  swamp.     "  The 

moon   and    the   stars  are  beautiful ;    the   hills   and  the 

woods  and  the  rivers  are  beautiful ;   but  how  hideous  I 


NARRATION    AND    DESCRIPTION    COMBINED.  65 

look.  And  what  is  my  birth-place  ?  A  swamp  which 
men  hate  and  avoid."  Thus  bemoaning  lierself,  the  Mist 
continued  to  creep  sluggishly  over  the  surface  of  .the 
marsh. 

Suddenly  an  evening  Breeze  came  dancing  over  the 
hills,  fresh  and  full  of  life.  At  his  approach  the  Mist 
began  to  rise,  brightening  as  she  rose,  for  the  moon  shone 
full  upon  her.  The  Breeze  then  laid  hold  of  her,  and 
bore  her  swiftly  on  his  wings  far  up  into  the  sky,  and 
she  became  a  cloud. 

Meanwhile  the  sun  rose,  and  men  looked  forth  from 
their  homes  on  the  fields  sparkling  with  dew  —  they 
looked  also  to  the  sky  and  saw  a  glorious  Cloud  sail- 
ing over  the  distant  hills.  "  We  may  hope  for  rain 
to-day,"  they  said,  and  went  cheerfully  to  their  labors. 
The  heat  increased,  the  men  grew  weary,  the  earth  was 
dry  and  hard,  and  scarcely  could  their  spades  turn  up 
the  flinty  soil.  The  Cloud  meanwhile  moved  in  beauty 
across  the  heavens,  yet  not  with  pride,  for  she  remem- 
bered her  lowly  birth-place,  and  she  longed  to  prove  her 
gratitude  by  doing  good. 

The  weary  men  looked  upward.  "Would,"  they  said, 
"that  yonder  Cloud  might  bring  us  rain,  for  the  streams 
are  dry,  and  our  cattle  are  in  need  of  water."  "  O  that 
I  could  help  you  ?  "  exclaimed  the  Cloud.  Scarcely  had 
she  spoken  when  the  Breeze  came  back  again,  and  hasten- 
ing toward  the  cloud,  said  to  her,  "  Thy  wish  is  heard, 
but  art  thou  willing  to  become  a  sacrifice?"  The  Cloud 
hesitated  for  a  moment.  She  thought  of  her  beauty  and 
freedom.  But  again  faint,  beseeching  voices  from  the 
earth  reached  her.     "  I  am  willing,"  said  the  Cloud. 

Then  the  Wind  drew  near  and  drove  her  with  haste 
across  the  heavens.     Her  beauty  vanished,  she  became 


C6  STUDIES    TX   ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

black  and  IV-arlul  to  look  upon,  and  her  brother,  the 
Wind,  roared  behind  her  with  a  fearful  voice.  The 
loftiest  trees  bent  under  the  tempest,  and  nien  hastened 
to  their  homes  for  shelter.  In  a  moment  the  Wind  was 
hushed.  Lightning  gleamed  from  the  Cloud,  thunder 
was  heard,  and  then  a  torrent  of  rain  descended.  The 
earth  drank  it  in,  the  dry  clods  became  soaked,  and  the 
thirsty  fields  revived. 

Soon  the  sun  broke  forth,  lighting  the  earth  with 
beauty  and  causing  the  rain-drops  to  glitter  in  his  beams. 

Across  the  bosom  of  the  Cloud  rested  a  beautiful  rain- 
bow, emblem  of  that  love  which  made  her  willjng  to  be- 
come a  sacrifice  for  the  good  of  men.  And  a  sacrifice 
she  was ;  for  as  the  sky  grew  more  and  more  bright,  she 
melted  away  and  was  seen  no  more.  —  From  the  Crerman. 

Note.  —  In  the  reproduction,  be  careful  to  keep  the  quotations  in  the  first 
person. 

LIST  OF  SUBJECTS   FOR   SIMILAR   COMPOSITION. 

The  Maple  and  the  Rose. 

They  run  a  race  in  growing  —  rose  grows  faster  —  maple  surer, 
for  it  keeps  its  height  from  year  to  year.  After  years  have  passed, 
they  compare  —  maple  high,  with  birds  singing  in  its  branches  — 
rose  very  little  higher  than  at  first.     "  The  race  is  not  to  the  swift." 

The  White  Giant. 

Steam  in  its  various  applications. 

The  Great  Magician. 

Electricity  in  its  various  applications. 

Journey  of  a  Drop  of  Water. 

Falls  upon  a  house  roof  —  reaches  a  stream  —  then  river  —  then 
ocean.  Drawn  up  by  sun — becomes  pai't  of  a  cloud  —  driven  by 
wind  —  falls  as  rain  upon  same  house  roof  from  which  it  started. 
"Write  in  first  person. 


NARRATION   AND   DESCRIPTION   COMBINED.  67 

The  Leaf's  Complaint. 

Leaf  told  by  the  wind  that  some  day  it  would  fall  from  the  tree 
and  die  —  tree  comforts  it.  When  autumn  came,  leaf  became  col- 
ored —  softly  sailed  off  —  went  to  sleep. 

The  Seasons  as  Children  of  One  Family. 

Year  as  father  —  four  children;  winter,  son  —  spring,  summer, 
and  autumn,  daughters.  Dress  and  action  suitable  to  the  time  of 
year. 

Dispute  of  Mathematics,  Latin,  and  Science  for  a 
Boy's  Time. 

Set  forth  the  value  of  each,  using  the  first  person. 

The  Butterfly's  Ball. 

The  guests  —  how  dressed  —  how  entertained. 

The  Cat's  Dhnier  Party. 

All  the  cat's  relations  invited:  lion  —  tiger  —  leopard  —  pan- 
ther.    Each  tells  of  his  home. 

The  Debate  in  the  Orchard. 

Meeting  of  birds  —  chairman  appointed.  Question  for  discus- 
sion—  "Man  is  mean,  mischievous,  and  malevolent."  Arguments 
for  and  against,  from  the  birds'  point  of  view. 

My  Dream. 

Imagine  a  procession  of  the  characters  in  children's  stories,  to 
pass  by  :  Bo-peep  —  Red  Riding-Hood  —  Cinderella  —  Jack  the 
Giant-Killer  — Aladdin  — Ali  Baba  —  Robinson  Crusoe  —  Christian. 

LIST  or   IMAGINATIVE  STORIES. 

The  Kinfj  of  the  Golden  River     .     .     .  John  Ruskin. 

A  Child's  Dream  of  a  Star     ....  Charles  Dickens. 

The  Ugly  Duckling Hans  Andersen. 

The  Sister  Years Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 

The  Ephemera Benjamin  Franklin, 

Death  and  Sleep Krummacher. 


68  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMrOSlTlON. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

A   STUDY  OF  SEjYTE.KCES  AKD   THE 
PARAGRAPH. 


LESSON    XXIV. —POEM   AND    STKUOTUEE    OF   THE 

SENTENCE. 

FORM. 

Sentences  are  found  in  four  different  forms. 

Declarative.  —  Mary  reads  the  book. 
Interrogative.  —  Does  Mary  read  the  book? 
Imperative.  —  Mary,  read  the  book. 
Exclamatory.  —  How  Mary  reads  the  book ! 

Each  of  these  sentences  may  be  :  — 

Affirmative.  —  Mary  reads  the  book. 
Negative.  —  Mary  does  not  read  the  book. 

STRUCTURE. 

Sentences  likewise  differ  in  their  structure. 

The  principal  varieties  are  the  Loose,  the  Periodic,  and 
the  Balanced.  The  one  oftenest  used  is  the  Loose ; 
it  is  the  sentence  of  conversation,  of  easy  narrative,  and 
largely  of  description.     The  Periodic  and  the  Balanced 


STUDY    OF    SENTENCES    AND    THE    PARAGRAPH.       69 

are  oftener  used  in  orations,  arguments,  and  didactic  dis- 
course. 

A  Loose  Sentence  is  one  that  says  something  in  the 
first  clause,  which  is  added  to,  subtracted  from,  modified 
or  changed  in  some  way,  as  the  sentence  goes  on ;  and 
may  be  built  up  word  by  word,  as  it  is  spoken  or  written. 

Ex.  "It  is  contended  by  those  who  have  been  bred  at  Eton, 
Harrow,  Rugby,  and  Westminster,  tliat  the  public  sentiment  within 
these  schools  is  high-toned  and  manly ;  that  in  their  playgrounds 
courage  is  universally  admired,  meanness  despised,  manly  feelings 
and  generous  conduct  are  encouraged;  and  that  an  unwritten  code 
of  honor  deals  to  the  spoiled  child  of  rank  and  to  the  child  of  up- 
start wealth  an  even-handed  justice,  purges  their  nonsense  out  of 
both,  and  does  all  that  can  be  done  to  make  them  gentlemen." 
—  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 

A  Periodic  Sentence  is  one  so  formed  that  it  keeps 
the  mind  in  suspense  about  the  meaning  until  the  very 
end,  —  it  must  be  as  a  whole  in  the  mind  of  the  speaker 
or  writer  before  it  is  spoken  or  written. 

Ex.  "  If  we  wish  to  be  free,  if  we  mean  to  preserve  inviolate 
those  inestimable  privileges  for  which  we  have  been  so  long  con- 
tending, if  we  mean  not  basely  to  abandon  the  noble  struggle  in 
which  we  are  engaged  and  which  we  have  pledged  ourselves  never 
to  abandon,  until  the  glorious  object  of  our  contest  shall  be  ob- 
tained,—  we  must  fight."  —  Patrick  Henry. 

"  And  though  I  bestow  all  my  goods  to  feed  the  poor,  and  though 
I  give  my  body  to  be  burned,  and  have  not  charity,  it  profiteth  me 
nothing."  —  Bible. 

A  Balanced  Sentence  is  one  containing  two  clauses 
that  are  similar  in  form,  and  either  parallel  or  contrasted 
in  meaning. 

Ex.  "  In  peace,  children  bury  their  parents ;  in  war,  parents  bury 
their  children." 


70  STUDIES   IN    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

"  Had  you  rather  C?esar  were  living,  and  die  all  slaves,  than  that 
CcDSar  were  dead,  to  live  all  free  men  ?  "  —  Shakespeare. 

"  None  knew  thee  but  to  love  thee. 
Nor  named  thee  but  to  praise."  —  Halleck. 

TliL'  r.ook  of  Jol),  the  Psalms  of  David,  aud  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon 
abound  iu  examples  of  balanced  sentences. 


LESSON  XXV.  — THE  PARAaEAPH. 

The  paragraph  is  the  division  of  discourse  next  higher 
than  the  sentence ;  it  is  in  fact  a  collection  of  sentences 
with  unity  of  purpose.  The  most  important  principles 
which  govern  the  structui-e  of  the  paragraph  are  :  — 

The  first  sentence,  unless  plainly  introductory,  should 
give  some  idea  of  the  subject  of  the  paragraph. 

The  bearing  of  each  sentence  upon  what  has  gone 
before  should  be  evident. 

The  paragraph  should  have  unity  of  thought,  with 
variety  of  expression;  that  is,  there  should  be  sen- 
tences of  different  length,  different  form,  and  different 
structure. 

EXERCISE  I. 

Analyze  various  kinds  of  composition  with  a  view  to  the  para- 
graphing. 

Analyze  the  paragraphs  of  different  selections  in  school  readers, 
magazine  articles,  and  the  sections  in  Caesar's  Commentaries  or 
Cicero's  Orations. 

EXERCISE   II. 

Write  several  paragraphs  upon  a  given  subject,  having  clearly  in 
mind  the  central  thought  in  each ;  where  each  paragraph  begins 
and  where  it  ends. 

The  first  word  of  a  paragraph  in  a  written  composition  should  always 
begin  a  little  back  of  the  left  naargin. 


NARRATION    AND    DESCEIPTION    COMBINED.  71 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
XABRATIOX  AJfD  DESCBIPTIOJ^  COMBIJfED. 

STUDIES   IN    NATURAL   HISTORY. 

Of  the  many  subjects  suitable  for  composition  work, 
none  are  better  and  feiv  as  good  as  those  connected  with 
natural  history.  Such  subjects  call  forth  original  obser- 
vation on  the  part  of  the  writer,  lead  to  intelligent  study 
of  text-books,  and  not  infrequently  are  the  means  of  devel- 
oping a  taste  for  the  study  of  nature  which  ivas  before 
unknown. 


LESSON  XXVI.  —  GENEKAL  DESCEIPTION  OF  A  BIED. 

A  bird  is  an  oviparous,  vertebrate  animal  with  warm 
blood  and  a  covering  of  feathers.  Its  entire  structure 
is  organized  for  flight,  and,  consequently,  the  anterior 
extremities,  which  in  man  are  arms,  in  quadrupeds  legs, 
are  in  the  bird  developed  into  wangs.  The  bird  is,  there- 
fore, a  biped,  and  the  operations  of  finding  and  taking 
the  food,  of  cleansing  the  plumage,  are  performed  al- 
most exclusively  by  the  mouth,  which  consists  of  two 
lipless  and  toothless  jaws  sheathed  witli  horn.  The 
sliape  of  the  body  is  oval,  the  neck  is  long  and  flexible, 
the  legs  are  set  well  back,  and  the  toes  are  lengthened 
and  spread  out  to  form  an  adequate  base  of  support. 

The  bones  are  light,  and  some  of  thera  have  cavities 


72  STUDIES    IN    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

which  are  filled  with  air  Avhen  the  bird  breathes.  The 
bones  of  the  back  are  more  or  less  united ;  the  sternum 
or  breast  bone  is  very  large  in  order  to  make  a  place  of 
attachment  for  the  great  muscles  which  move  the  wings. 
In  front  of  the  sternum  is  a  bony  brace  which  keeps  the 
shoulders  apart,  called  in  chickens  the  wislibone. 

Besides  the  ordinar}'"  clothing-feathers  are  larger  ones 
called  quills.  Considering  the  wing  of  a  bird  as  a  mod- 
ified arm,  the  quills  of  the  hand  are  called  primaries ; 
of  the  forearm,  secondaries ;  of  the  humerus,  tertiaries. 
Those  forming  the  tail  of  the  bird  are  distinguished  as 
steering  quills,  and  the  short  feathers  found  at  the  base 
of  the  quills  of  both  wing  and  tail  are  coverts.  The 
entire  plumage  of  a  bird  is  renewed  every  year  —  in 
some  species  even  twice  a  year.  This  process  is  moult- 
ing. The  eyes  of  birds  are  remarkable  for  their  power 
to  see  equally  well  objects  both  near  and  remote.  They 
have  three  eyelids,  two  of  which  move  vertically,  while 
the  third  sweeps  over  the  eyeball  horizontally,  from  the 
inner  to  the  outer  side  of  the  globe.  The  ear  is  exter- 
nally marked,  but  is  not  conspicuous ;  the  nostrils  are 
placed  on  the  upper  part  of  the  bill ;  the  tongue  is 
small,  and  the  taste  is  probably  not  delicate. 

EXERCISE    I. QUESTIONS    TO    BE   ANSWERED   ORALLY. 

How  is  the  plumage  of  birds  rendered  waterproof  ? 

Does  the  winter  phimage  ever  differ  frorn  that  of  the  summer? 

"Which  sex  usually  has  the  brightest  colors? 

How  are  eggs  hatched  ? 

How  do  birds  sit  so  securely  on  their  jierches? 

AVhat  other  vertebrate  besides  the  bird  flies  ? 

What  other  vertebrates  lay  eggs? 

"What  characteristic  distinguishes  birds  from  other  animals? 

How  are  birds'  nests  made  so  round? 


NARRATION    AND    DESCRIPTION    COMBINED.  73 

What  quadruped  has  the  bill  of  a  bu-d  ? 

Do  tropical  birds  have  brighter  plumage  than  those  of  temperate 
zones  ? 

EXERCISE  II. 

Pupils  should  write  in  class  from  foregoing  studies  the  best 
description  of  a  bird  that  they  can,  giving  all  the  characteristics 
that  they  know. 


LESSON  XXVII. -PEEE  DESCEIPTION  OF  BIEDS. 

EXERCISE    I.  —  OUTLINE    OF    A    FREE    DESCRIPTION. 
THE  AMERICAN    ROBIN   (Menila  migratoria). 

Explanation  of  the  various  names.  Robin  redbreast  given  by 
Pilgrims.     Why  ? 

Date  of  arrival  and  departure  in  our  latitude. 

Size.  —  Birds  are  measured  from  tij)  of  beak  to  end  of  tail. 
Spread  of  wings  should  be  given. 

Appearance.  —  Color  —  gait  —  flight. 

The  flight  of  the  rolnu  is  swift  and  may  be  extended.  In 
migrating,  it  is  believed  to  fly  a  hundred  miles  in  a  day. 

Character.  —  Trustful  — builds  near  the  dwellings  of  men. 

Song.  —  Bright,  cheerful.  "  Cheer  up  !  cheer  up  !  cheery  ! 
cheery !  "  Sings  early  in  the  morning  and  somewhat  at  evenmg. 
Often  many  will  sing  in  full  chorus.  , 

Food.  —  Insects,  seeds,  fruit.  The  young  birds  eat  only  worms 
and  larva;,  and  these  in  enormous  quantities  —  forty  per  cent  more 
than  their  own  weight  every  twenty-four  hours. 

Nest.  —  Made  of  mud,  twigs,  and  grasses.    The  robin  is  a  mason. 

Eggs.  —  Color  —  number  —  size  —  length  of  time  for  hatching. 

Anecdotes  and  Incidents.  —  From  the  writer's  personal  obser- 
vation. 

The  Robin  in  Literature.  —  The  English  robin  is  not  like  our 
American  robin. 

Note.  —  By  filling  up  this  outline  with  facts  of  his  own  observation, 
each  pupil  can  write  a  fair  description  of  the  robin. 


74  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

LIST  OF  BIRDS    FOR  SIMILAR  DESCRIPTIONS. 

The  Bluebird.     Slalia  sialis. 

One  of  the  first  to  arrive  in  the  spring.  Builds  nest  in  holes 
of  wall,  hollow  trees  or  posts.  Notes  always  soft,  a  low,  mellow 
warble. 

Baltimore  Oriole.     Icterus  galbula. 

Wears  the  livery  of  Lord  Baltimore  —  orange  and  black.  Called 
Hangbird  —  Golden  Robin  —  Fire-bird.  Reaches  the  North  when 
the  cherry  trees  are  in  blossom ;  seldom  remains  longer  than  the 
middle  of  August. 

"  The  nest  of  nests,  the  ideal  nest,  is  unquestionably  that  of  the  Baltimore 
Oriole.  It  loves  to  attach  its  nest  to  the  swaying  branches  of  the  tallest 
elms,  making  no  attempt  at  concealment,  but  satisfied  if  the  position  be 
high  and  the  branch  pendent.  This  nest  seems  to  cost  more  time  and  skill 
than  any  other  kind.  A  peculiar  llax-like  substance  seems  always  to  be 
sought  for  and  always  found.  The  nest  when  completed  assumes  the  form 
of  a  large,  suspended,  gourd-shaped  bag.  The  walls  are  thin  but  firm,  and 
proof  against  the  most  driving  rain."— Jy/i?i  Burroughs. 

Bobolink.      Doliclionyx   oryzivorus.      Meed-hird. 
nice-bird. 

"  June's  bridesman,  poet  of  the  year. 
Gladness  on  wings  —  the  bobolink  is  here." — Lowell. 

In  spring  and  summer,  breast,  wings,  and  tail  black ;  back  of 
neck,  cream  color ;  back  and  rump,  white ;  bill  and  legs,  brown.  In 
fall,  yellowish  brown,  streaked  with  darker.  Length,  7.55  inches. 
Gayest  and  most  rollicking  of  all  our  birds,  —  found  in  the 
meadows,  flying  just  above  the  grass  or  perched  on  tall  weeds. 
It  nests  upon  the  ground.  In  the  South  it  becomes  a  game  bird 
and  haunts  the  rice-fields. 

Bead  Robert  of  Lincoln,  by  William  Cullen  Bryant.     ■ 
Bead  The  Birds  of  Spnng,  by  Washington  Irving. 

"  A  flock  of  merry  singing  birds  were  sporting  in  the  grove: 
Some  were  warbling  merrily,  and  some  were  making  love. 
There  were  Bobolincoln,  Wadolincoln,  Winterseeble,  Conquedel  — 
A  livelier  set  were  never  led  by  tabor,  pipe  or  fiddle ;  — 


NARRATION    AND    DESCRIPTION    COMBINED.  75 

Crying,  Phew,  shew,  Wadolincoln ;  see,  see,  Bobolincoln 

Down  among  the  tickle-tops,  hiding  in  the  buttercups ; 

I  know  the  saucy  chap,  I  see  his  shining  cap 

Bobbing  in  the  clover  there,  —  see,  see,  see."  —  Wilson  Flagg. 

Red-headed     Wood-pecker.       Melane^yes    erytliro- 
ceplialus. 

"  The  wood-peckers  all  build  in  about  the  same  manner,  excavating  the 
trunk  or  branches  of  a  decayed  tree,  and  depositing  the  eggs  on  the  fine 
fragments  of  wood  at  the  bottom  of  the  cavity.  Though  the  nest  is  not 
especially  an  artistic  work,  —  requiring  strength  rather  than  skill, — yet 
the  eggs  and  young  of  few  other  birds  are  so  completely  housed  from  the 
elements  or  protected  from  their  natural  enemies,  —  the  jays,  crows,  hawks, 
and  owls."  — John  Jjurruiujlis. 

Blue  Jay.     Cyanocitta  eristata. 

A  large  bird -^  head  splendidly  crested  —  general  effect  in  color 
blue,  with  wings  and  tail  barred  with  white  and  black.  Destructive 
to  the  eggs  and  young  of  other  birds  —  frequently  resident.  Cry, 
shrill  and  hoarse.  An  English  statute  of  the  17th  year  of  George 
II.  empowered  grand  juries  to  offer  three-pence  for  the  head  of 
each  jay,  on  account  of  alleged  injury  to  young  trees. 

Read  A  Bird  of  Affairs,  by  Olive  Thorne  Miller. 

Read  Succession  of  Forest  Trees,  by  Henry  D.  Thoreau. 

The  Common  Crow.      Corvus  Aviericanus. 

Grave,  cunning  bird,  greatly  disliked  because  of  habit  of  pulling 
up  corn,  —  really  very  useful  in  killing  cut-worms  and  caterpillars. 
His  cry  is  "caw,  caw,"  his  flight  heavy.  Opinions  of  different 
oi-nithologists  about  liim.  Is  ^sop's  fable.  Crow  and  Fox,  a  cor- 
rect representation  of  his  character  ? 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  THE  WRITEK. 

The  above  notes  are  simply  suggestive.  It  is  best  to  follow 
pretty  closely  the  study  of  a  robin,  adding  anything  of  interest 
you  may  know.  Do  not  be  confined  to  this  list ;  take  any  bird  that 
you  know  about.  If  you  are  not  familiar  with  any  bird,  try  to 
make  an  opportunity  for  personal  observation  rather  than  glean 
from  books. 


76  STUDIES    IN    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

LESSON    XXVIII.  —  GENERAL    SUBJECTS    EELATING 

TO   BIEDS. 

Mifrrations  of  Birds. 

"The  stork  in  the  heaven  knoweth  her  appointed  time ;  and  the  turtle 
and  the  crane  and  the  swallow  observe  the  tune  of  tlieir  coming."  —  Bible. 

Note  date  of  arrival  of  robins,  bluebirds,  song  sparrows,  blue 
jays,  etc.,  all  the  common  well-known  birds.  Also,  time  of  their 
gathering  into  flocks  in  the  autumn  and  the  date  of  their  disa}> 
pearance.  It  is  believed  that  most  small  birds  migrate  at  tright. 
If  the  bii'ds  stayed  during  winter,  what  would  they  find  to  eat? 
How  keep  warm  ? 

Birds'  Nests. 

Where  do  different  varieties  of  birds  build  ;  e.g.,  robin,  bluebird, 
ground  sparrow,  wood-pecker,  oriole,  swallow,  hen,  tm-key?  Plat- 
form builders,  as  eagles  and  hawks  —  miners,  as  bank  swallows  — 
masons,  as  robins,  barn  swallows  —  carpenters,  as  wood-peckers  — 
weavers,  as  orioles. 

Eead  In  Nesting  Time,  by  Olive  Thorne  Miller. 

Birds  as  Ornaments. 

The  fashion  of  wearing  birds  as  ornaments  for  hats  and  bonnets 
threatens  the  existence  of  many  varieties.  The  most  persistent 
and  cruel  of  the  birds'  enemies  seem  to  be  those  who  wish  to  wear 
their  dead  bodies  as  ornaments.  The  Audubon  Society  has  been 
formed  of  persons  who  promise  not  to  wear  birds  and  feathers  (ex- 
cept ostrich  feathers  and  feathers  of  birds  used  for  food)  as  orna- 
ments ;  not  to  kill  birds  to  be  used  for  that  purpose. 

One  London  dealer  in  birds  received,  when  the  fashion  was  at 
its  height,  a  single  consignment  of  thirty-two  thousand  dead  hum- 
ming-birds ;  and  another  received  at  one  time  thirty  thousand 
aquatic  birds  and  three  hundred  thousand  pairs  of  wings. 


NARRATION   AND    DESCRIPTION    COMBINED.  77 


THE    HALO. 

Think  what  a  price  to  pay, 
Faces  so  bright  aud  gay, 

Just  for  a  hat ! 
Flowers  uuvisited,  mornings  unsung, 
Sea-ranges  bare  of  the  wings  that  o'erswuug, 

Bared,  just  for  that ! 

Think  of  the  others  too, 
Others  and  mothers,  too, 

Bright  eyes  in  liat ! 
Hear  you  no  mother  groan  floating  in  air, 
Hear  you  no  little  rnoan  —  birdlings'  despair  — 

Somewhere,  for  that  ! 

Caught  mid  some  mother  work. 
Torn  by  a  hunter  Turk, 

Just  for  your  hat  ! 
Plenty  of  mother  love  yet  in  the  world. 
All  the  more  wings  to  tear,  carefully  twirled  — 

Women  want  that ! 

Oh  !  but  the  shame  of  it, 
Oh  !  but  the  blame  of  it 

Price  of  a  hat ! 
Just  for  a  janntiness  brightening  the  street  — 
This  is  your  halo,  O  faces  so  sweet, 

Death  !  and  for  that.  —  W.  C.  Gannett. 

The  Flight  of  Birds. 

Difference  in  flight  of  crow,  eagle,  swallow,  robin,  hen.  Ancient 
divination  by  the  flight  of  birds. 

"The  short,  round  wing  confers  a  heavy,  powerful,  cutting  flight,  for 
short  distances,  with  a  whirring  noise  produced  by  quick  vibrations  of  the 
wing.  Birds  that  fly  thus  are  almost  always  thick-set  and  heavy.  The 
long,  pointed  wing  gives  a  light,  airy,  skimming  flight,  indefinitely  pro- 
longed, with  little  or  no  noise ;  birds  of  this  style  of  wing  are  generally 
trim  and  elegant."  —  Cones. 

Birds  as  Symbols. 

The  owl  was  the  symbol  of  Athene,  Goddess  of  Wisdom,  also  the 
emblem  of  desolation,  as  in  Isaiah  xxxiv.  lo,  14,  15.  The  eagle, 
called  Bird  of  Jove,  is  the  emblem  of  strength,  and  as  such  appears 


78  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMrOSITION. 

either  on  the  co;it-of-;irms  or  ii})ou  the  flag  of  many  nations  ;  e.g., 
Konie,  United  States,  Prussia,  Russia,  Austria,  France,  Mexico.  The 
raven  is  a  bird  of  evil  omen.  The  dove  signifies  gentleness,  and  in 
religious  pictures  typifies  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  stork,  piety  and 
good  fortune  ;  the  goose,  folly  ;  the  peacock,  pride  ;  the  pelican, 
sadness  ;  the  kingfisher  or  halcyon,  tranquillity. 

Mythological  and  Sacred  Birds. 

rh(Tenix  —  harpy  —  roc.  Havens  of  Odin  —  vulture  of  Prome- 
theus—  sacred  ibis  of  Egypt.  Birds  sacred  to  the  Greek  gods  were: 
owl  to  Athene,  peacock  to  Juno,  dove  to  Venus,  eagle  to  Jove. 

Birds  of  the  Biljle. 

Any  concordance  will  give  the  necessary  references. 

Birds  of  the  Modern  Poets. 

Study  "Wordsworth,  Longfellow,  Tennyson,  Lowell,  Bryant,  for 
their  allusions  to  birds. 

Birds  in  their  Cages. 

Birds  usually  caged  —  canary  —  bullfinch  —  mocking-bird  — 
parrot.  Native  home  of  each.  Care  which  they  require.  Duty 
of  owners  to  provide  for  health  and  happiness  of  their  prisoners. 
How  bullfinches  are  taught  to  whistle  tunes.  Cruelty  of  caging 
our  wild  birds. 

BOOKS   OF   REFERENCE. 

Birds  of  America John  James  Audubon. 

A  History  of  North  American  Birds.     .  Baird,  Brewer,  llidgeway. 

Ornithology  and  Oology  of  New  England  Edward  A.  Samuels. 

The  Birds  and  Seasons  of  New  England  Wilson  Flagg. 

Animal  Memoirs Samuel  Lockwood. 

Wake  Robin John  Burroughs. 

Birds  and  Poets John  Burroughs. 

Upland  and  Meadoic Charles  C.  Abbott. 

Bird  Ways Olive  Thorne  Miller. 

Birds  in  the  Bush  .........  Bradford  Torrey. 

Birds  through  an  Opera  Glass       .     .     .  Florence  A.  Merriam. 

Our  Common  Birds    .......  John  B.  Grant. 


NARRATION    AND   DESCRIPTION    COMBINED.  79 

LESSON  XXIX.— POEMS  EELATING  TO  BIEDS. 

EXERCISE   I. 

Pupils  are  each  to  bring  one  of  the  following  poems  to  be  read 
in  class. 

To  a  Waterfowl William  CuUen  Bryant. 

The  Titmouse Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 

The  Sandpiper Celia  Thaxter. 

Robert  of  Lincoln William  CuUen  Bryant. 

The  Stormji  Petrel Barry  Cornwall. 

To  the  Skylark Percy  Bysshe  Shelley. 

The  Legend  of  the  Crossbill      ....  Henry  W.  Longfellow. 

The  Birds  of  KilUngworth Henry  W.  Longfellow. 

The  0' Lincoln  Pawilii Wilson  Flagg. 

Elegy  on  Lesbia's  Sparrow Catullus. 

The  Eagle Alfred  Tennyson. 

To  the  Cuckoo William  Wordsworth. 

The  Belfry  Pigeon N.  P.  Willis. 

To  the  Eagle James  (t.  Percival. 

The  Skylark James  Hogg. 

To  the  Skylark William  Wordsworth. 

The  Pewee J.  T.  Trowbridge. 

The  Jackdaw  of  Rhe/mis Thomas  Ingoldsby. 

The  Dying  Swan Alfred  Tennyson. 

Note.  — These  poems  can  be  found  in  any  good  collection  of  miscella- 
neous poems.    Many  are  in  the  different  school  readers. 


LESSON  XXX.— DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

The  completest,  the  most  singular,  the  most  useful  conquest  of 
man  —  the  domestic  dog.   —  Cnvier. 

Ye  who  perchance  bcliold  Miis  simple  urn, 
Pass  on  —  it  honors  none  you  wish  to  mourn  ; 


80  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

To  mark  a  friend's  remains  these  stones  arise ; 
I  never  had  but  one,  and  here  he  lies. 

Lord  Byron's  Epitaph  to  his  Dog  Boatswain. 

Experiment  shows  that  the  bird  and  the  dog  reason  as  the  hunter 
does ;  that  all  the  animals  show  the  same  good  sense  in  their  hum- 
bler walk  that  the  man  who  is  their  friend  or  enemy  does ;  and  if  it 
be  in  smaller  measure,  yet  it  is  not  diminished,  as  his  often  is,  by 
freak  or  folly.    —  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 

This  dog  hath  so  himself  subdued 
That  hunger  cannot  make  him  rude; 
And  his  behavior  does  confess 
True  courage  dwells  with  gentleness. 

Mrs.  Phillips. 

EXERCISE  I.  —  THE  FOLLOWING  QUESTIONS   SHOULD  BE 
ANSWERED   ORALLY. 

Name  the  domestic  animals.  Why  so  called?  How  far  back 
can  we  trace  the  dog?  Are  there  wild  dogs?  Where  are  wild 
horses  found?  What  is  their  history?  Where  are  wild  sheep 
found  ?  Which  of  our  domestic  animals  was  held  sacred  in  Ancient 
Egypt  ?  Who  was  the  Bull  Apis  supposed  to  be  ?  How  was  he 
recognized  ?  Which  aninuxl  is  the  symbol  of  Christ  ?  Of  Chris- 
tians? Which  animal  is  the  symbol  of  strength?  Of  patience? 
Of  meekness?  Of  greed?  Which  has  most  intelligence?  Most 
love  for  man?  Which  is  most  graceful?  Most  angular?  Most 
picturesque  ?  What  animals  graze  ?  What  animals  lap  in  drinking  ? 
Why  do  they  ?  With  what  ones  do  we  use  the  word  flock  ?  Herd  ? 
Drove?  Pack?  Is  horse-flesh  used  for  food?  Where  are  dogs 
used  as  beasts  of  burden  ?  What  famous  breed  hunt  for  travellers 
lost  in  the  snow?  What  sacred  animal  did  the  children  of  Israel 
make  in  the  wilderness  ?  What  Greek  goddess  was  called  ox-eyed  ? 
Did  the  Indians  have  domestic  animals  when  America  was  dis- 
covered? How  is  steam-power  measured  ?  What  is  the  ordinary 
age  that  horses  reach  ?  Dogs?  Cats?  Sheep?  Cows?  What  star  is 
called  the  Dog-star  ?  Why  ?  How  many  teeth  has  a  cow  ?  A 
sheep  ?  For  how  many  years  can  a  horse's  age  be  told  by  his  teeth  ? 
Are  a  cow's  horns  before  or  behind  her  ears? 


NARRATION   AND   DESCRIPTION   COMBINED.  81 

EXAMPLES   OF  DESCRIPTIONS   OF  ANIMALS. 
THE   WAR    HORSE. 

Hast  thou  given  the  horse  his  strength?  Hast  thou 
clothed  his  neck  with  his  quivering  mane  ?  The  glory 
of  his  nostrils  is  terrible.  He  paweth  in  the  valley  and 
rejoiceth  in  his  strength,  he  hurries  on  to  meet  the  armed 
man,  —  he  mocketh  at  fear,  —  he  turneth  not  his  back 
from  the  sword.  The  quiver  rattleth  against  him,  — 
the  glittering  spear  and  the  shield,  —  he  swalloweth  the 
ground  with  fierceness  and  rage ;  neither  believeth  he 
that  it  is  the  sound  of  the  trumpet.  He  saith  among 
the  trumpets  Ha !  lia !  and  he  smelleth  the  battle  afar 
off,  and  heareth  the  thunder  of  the  captains  and  the 
shouting-.  —  Bible. 


"&• 


THE   COW, 

The  cow  belongs  among  the  picturesque  animals. 
Her  shaggy,  loose-jointed  body,  her  irregular,  sketchy 
outlines,  her  tossing  horns,  her  bushy  tail,  her  swinging 
gait,  her  tranquil  habits,  —  all  tend  to  make  her  an  object 
upon  which  the  artist's  eye  loves  to  dwell. 

The  cow  appears  in  pictures  much  often er  than  in 
literature,  yet  she  has  given  us  some  good  words  and 
liints.  How  could  we  get  along  without  the  parable  of 
the  cow  that  gave  a  good  pail  of  milk  and  then  kicked 
it  all  over?  Or  the  parable  of  the  cream  and  the 
skimmed  milk,  or  of  the  buttered  toast?  We  know,  too, 
through  her  aid,  what  the  horns  of  a  dilemma  mean,  and 
what  comfort  there  is  in  the  juicy  cud  of  revery.  The 
cow  has  not  been  of  much  service  to  tlie  poet,  and  yet  I 
remember  that  Jean  Ingelow  couhl  hardly  have  man- 
aged her  "  High  Tide  "  without "  Whitefoot "  and  "  Light- 


82  STUDIES    IN    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

foot,"  and  "  Cusha !  Cusha !  Cuslia  ! "  calling.  Or  Trow- 
bridge his  "  Eveninor  at  the  Farm,"  without  the  musical 
refrain  of  "  Co  boss  !  Co  boss  !  Co  !  Co  !  "  which  is  the 
real  call  of  the  American  farm  boy.  —  John  Burrour/hs. 

Note.  —  This  is  not  such  a  description  as  would  be  fouud  in  a  boolv  of 
natural  history.  It  is  less  accurate,  hut  more  readable.  It  is  a  literary,  not 
a  scientific  description.    The  selection  is  taken  from  Oar  Rural  Divinity. 

TROWSERS. 

"  Trowsers  was  an  animal  concerning  whose  breed  and 
parentage  there  existed  the  profoundest  uncertainty.  He 
belonged  distinctly  to  no  class,  but  had  the  peculiarities; 
of  many;  his  outer  dog,  however,  formed  but  a  small 
portion  of  his  nature.  The  virtues  of  Trowsers'  dispo- 
sition were  absolutely  without  number.  He  had  the 
fidelity  of  the  terrier,  the  sporting  proclivities  of  the 
setter,  the  speed  of  the  greyhound,  the  dignified  self- 
respect  of  the  mastiff,  — everything,  in  short,  was  in  him 
combined. 

"  In  his  tastes  he  was  a  creature  of  sensitive  discrim- 
inations. His  leading  passions  were  an  all-absorbing 
adoration  for  his  master,  and  an  equally  absorbing 
hatred  for  street-boys  —  the  latter  born,  no  doubt,  of 
bitter  memories  concerning  those  ringed  scars  by  which 
his  hind  legs  were  still  decorated.  Upon  these  fundamen- 
tal mainsprings  of  his  being  were  grafted  other  and  lesser 
loves  and  hates.  He  loved  those  who  loved  his  master, 
and  scented  out  with  unerring  exactitude  those  who  were 
unfriendly  to  him.  Duns  were  his  detestation  ;  all  trades- 
men, as  possible  bearers  of  bills,  came  in  for  a  share  of 
his  disapprobation. 

"  His  feelings  toward  women  were  of  the  most  deadly 
animosity.     The  landlady,  whom  he  grudgingly  suffered 


NARRATIOlSr   AND   DESCRIPTION   COMBINED.  83 

to  live  because  he  conceived  that  in  some  way  she  was 
of  use  to  his  master,  came  in  for  nothing  better,  even 
toward  the  dinner  hour,  than  suppressed  growls ;  the 
timid  little  servant-maid  lived  in  terror  of  her  life  by 
reason  of  him ;  the  laundress  left  the  linen,  tremblingl}', 
at  the  street  door,  and  took  to  her  heels  at  the  distant 
thunder  of  his  voice  ;  whilst  as  to  the  occasional  working- 
woman,  a  double  fee  was  necessary  to  induce  her  to 
venture  into  the  rooms  where  'that  there  wild  beast' 
was  to  be  met  with.  There  w^ere  no  distinctions  in  this 
sweeping  condemnation." 


LESSON    XXXL— GENEEAL    SUBJECTS    EELATINQ   TO 

ANIMALS. 

Dogs  of  History  and  Tradition. 

Argus,  the  dog  of  Ulysses ;  the  dog  of  Alcibiades  (the  story- 
is  told  by  Plutarch)  ;  Math,  the  dog  of  Richard  11.  of  England; 
Barry,  the  St.  Bernard,  instrumental  in  saving  the  lives  of  forty 
persons;  Sirrah,  Hogg's  dog,  told  of  in  The  Shepherd's  Calendar; 
Maida,  Sir  Walter  Scott's  greyhound,  etc. 

Poems  about  Dogs. 

Beth  Galert,  William  Spencer.  Flush,  My  Dog,  Elizabeth  Barrett 
Browning.  Epitaph  of  Boatswain,  Lord  Byron.  Roger  and  1, 
J.  T.  Trowbridge.     The  Twa  Dogs,  Robert  Burns. 

Dogs  in  Literature. 

The  works  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  Charles  Dickens,  and  Charles 
Kingsley  abound  in  dogs. 

Attributes  of  the  Dog. 

Love,  faithfulness,  obedience,  sensitiveness,  jealousy,  patience, 
curiosity,  mercy.    Relate  anecdotes  which  illustrate  these  attributes. 


84  STUDIES    IN    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

The  Gaits  of  a  Horse. 

Walk,  trot,  gallop,  run  —  natural  gaits.  Describe  them.  Pace, 
rack,  single-foot  —  acquired  gaits.  What  do  photographs  of  dif- 
ferent gaits  show?  ]s  the  luuuan  eye  sensitive  enough  to  grasp 
the  different  attitudes? 

Are  Animals  Happy  ? 

Happiness  of  domestic  animals  dependent  upon  man.  Since 
man  has  destroyed  their  wild  instincts,  the  least  he  can  do  is  to 
cai-e  for  them  kindly  and  wisely. 

"  I  would  not  enter  on  my  list  of  friends  the  man  who  need- 
lessly sets  foot  upon  a  worm." —  WiUicuii  Cowper. 

"  For  the  bliss  of  animals  lies  in  this,  that  on  their  lower  level 
they  shadow  the  bliss  of  those  —  few  at  any  moment  on  the  earth 
—  who  do  not  look  before  and  after,  and  pine  for  what  is  not,  but 
live  in  the  holy  carelessness  of  the  eternal  now." 

George  Macdonald. 

The  Cat. 

The  cat  family  —  history  of  our  domestic  cat  —  her  characteris- 
tics.    The  beauty  of  kittens. 

Characteristics  of  Various  Breeds  of  Cattle. 

The  Devon,  the  Jersey,  the  Durham,  the  Alderney,  the  Hol- 
stein,  etc. 

Animals  as  Symbols. 

Hog,  of  greed ;  ox,  of  patience ;  dog,  of  fidelity ;  horse,  of 
strength  ;  fox,  of  cunning  ;  bear,  of  rudeness :  cock  and  hen  in 
Japanese  pictures  signify  domestic  happiness. 

Sacred  Animals  of  the  World. 

Bull  —  cat  —  crocodile  —  ibis,  in  ancient  Egypt;  white  elephant, 
in  Siam  ;  cow,  in  India  ;  monkey,  in  Benares. 

Noted  Painters  of  Animals. 

Paul  Potter,  Verboeckhoven,  Rosa  Bonheur,  Landseer,  Schreyer, 
Troyon,  Beard. 


NARRATION    AND    DESCRIPTION    COMBINED.  85 

MytlioJogical  Animals. 

Centaur,  Griffin,  Sphinx,  Cerberus,  Dragon,  Unicorn,  Pegasus, 
Cliinisera,  Mermaid. 

Emotional  Expression  of  Animals. 

Do"- waa's  his  tail  —  horse  moves  his  ears  —  cat  raises  her  hair; 
bark  —  whine  —  howl  —  whinney  —  mew  —  purr  —  spit. 

Animals  of  the  Bible. 

Select  quotations  with  reference  to  the  characteristics  indicated. 
Ex.  "The  ox  knoweth  his  owner,  and  the  ass  his  master's  crib;  but 
Israel  doth  not  know,  my  people  doth  not  consider."  —  Isaiah  i.  3. 

A  World  without  Domestic  Animals. 

Picture  the  condition  of  the  world  as  we  know  it,  if  in  a  single 
night  all  the  domestic  animals  were  destroyed.  Could  any  foi'ces 
of  nature  be  made  to  take  the  place  of  horses?  Would  plants  sup- 
ply sufficient  food  ? 

Stories  of  Pets. 

Write  from  personal  experience  or  what  you  liave  heard,  not 
from  books. 

Read  Queer  Little  People^  by  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe. 


BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE. 

Researches  into  the  History  of  the  British  Dog  George  R.  Jesse. 

Animal  Intelligence George  J.  Romanes, 

The  Horse  of  America Henry  William  Herbert. 

The  Dog  of  Flanders Ouida. 

History  of  My  Pets Grace  Greenwood. 

Animal  Memoirs Samuel  Lockwood. 

Horse  and  Man J.  (J.  Wood. 

Black  Beauty Marie  Sewell. 

Rah  and  His  Friends Dr.  John  P.iown. 

Our  Cats  and  All  about  Them     ....  Harrison  Weir. 


86  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 


CHAPTER   IX. 
JfAERATIO.K  AMD  DESCRIPTIOJV  COMBINED. 

STUDIES   IN    NATURAL   HISTORY   (Continued). 


LESSON   XXXIL  — STUDY   OF  TEEES. 

These  questions  should  be  answered  orally,  the  pupils  finding  the 
answers  from  any  available  source.  Many  of  the  questions  will 
properly  provoke  discussion  and  difference  of  opinion. 

How  do  trees  affect  the  rainfall?  Why  are  our  Western  prairies 
treeless  ?  What  is  a  timber  claim  ?  Where  are  the  tallest  trees  in 
the  world?  To  what  age  do  trees  live?  How  is  the  age  of  a  tree 
determined  ?  Why  is  the  test  not  an  accurate  one  ?  From  what 
trees  is  sugar  obtained  ?  Oil  ?  Wax  ?  Where  do  they  get  these 
substances?  AVhen  is  the  resting  time  of  trees?  Do  evergreens 
rest?  How  does  a  tree  act  as  a  pump?  Wherein  is  the  great 
value  of  the  Eucalyjjtus  ?  Are  forest  trees  cultivated  in  any  coun- 
tries? Can  you  name  any  treeless  tracts  of  South  America?  Of 
Europe?  Of  Asia?  At  what  time  do  the  buds  form  on  trees  in 
our  climate?  What  tree  is  a  symbol  of  strength?  Which  one  is 
called  "  The  Lady  of  the  Forest"?  What  one  did  the  Indians  use 
to  make  canoes?  AVhy  do  our  trees  turn  a  more  brilliant  color  in 
autumn  than  the  trees  of  Europe?  W^hat  makes  the  knots  in 
wood  ?  Wliere  does  ebony  grow  ?  Why  is  rosewood  so  called  ? 
How  do  the  prevailing  winds  affect  the  trees  of  a  given  region? 
What  is  the  distinction  between  a  tree  and  a  bush  ?  What  is  the 
most  graceful  tree  of  the  Northern  states  ?  What  palm  grows  in 
the  United  States?  What  trees  have  determinate  trunks?  inde- 
terminate?    How  many  leaves  do  you  think  there  are  on  a  maple 


NARRATION    AND    DESCRIPTION    COMBINED.  87 

tree?  (Select  one  and  estimate  by  counting  the  leaves  on  a  small 
branch.)  If  they  were  laid,  side  by  side,  how  great  a  space  would 
they  cover  ?  If  laid  in  line,  how  far  would  they  reach  ?  Is  the 
shade  of  all  trees  equally  cool  ?     Have  trees  any  warmth  in  wintei-  ? 


LESSON  XXXIII.  — THE  AMEEIOAN  ELM. 

EXERCISE   I.  —  MODEL   FOR   STUDY. 
WHITE    ELM    (Ulmiis  Americana). 

The  American  elm  is  one  of  tlie  most  magnificent 
trees  of  Eastern  United  States.  From  a  root,  which  in 
old  trees  spreads  much  above  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
the  trunk  rises  to  a  considerable  heiglit  in  a  single 
stem.  Here  it  usually  divides  into  two  or  three  princi- 
pal branches  which  go  off  by  a  gradual  and  easy  curve. 
These  stretch  upwards  and  outwards  with  an  airy 
sweep  —  become  horizontal,  the  extreme  branchlets, 
and  in  ancient  trees  the  extreme  half  of  the  limb, 
become  pendent,  forming  a  light  and  regular  arch. 
This  graceful  curvature  and  absence  of  all  abruptness 
in  the  primary  limbs  are  entirely  characteristic  of  the 
tree,  and  enable  an  observer  to  distinguish  it  in  winter, 
and  even  at  night,  when  standing  in  relief  against  the  sky. 

The  American  elm  has  three  most  striking  and  dis- 
tinct shapes.  The  tall  Etruscan  vase  is  formed  by  four 
or  five  limbs,  separating  at  twenty  or  thirty  feet  from 
the  ground,  going  up  with  a  gradual  divergency  to 
sixty  or  seventy,  and  then  bending  rapidly  outward, 
forming  a  flat  top  with  a  pendent  border.  The  single 
or  compound  plume  is  represented  by  trees  stretching 
up  in  a  single  stem,  or  two  or  three  parallel  limbs  to 


88  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COlNrrOSITION. 

the  height  of  seventy,  or  even  a  luindred  feet,  and 
spreading  out  in  one  or  two  light,  feathery  plumes. 
Sometimes  the  elm  assumes  a  character  akin  to  the  oak : 
this  is  when  it  lias  been  transplanted  young  into  an 
open  situation  and  always  remained  by  itself.  It  is 
then  a  broad,  round-headed  tree. 

The  character  of  the  trunk  is  almost  as  various  as 
that  of  the  general  form  of  the  tree.  You  sometimes 
see  it  a  straight,  gradually  tapering  column,  shooting 
up  to  sixty  or  seventy  feet  without  a  limb ;  at  other 
times  you  see  it  a  verdant  pillar  of  foliage  feathering 
from  the  branches  to  the  ground. 

With  the  earliest  spring  the  outmost  and  uppermost 
branches  are  fringed  with  numerous  bunches  of  reddish 
brown  blossoms,  soon  to  give  place  to  the  soft  green  of 
the  young  leaves.  The  flowers  are  in  numerous  clusters, 
of  from  eight  to  twenty  in  a  cluster,  on  the  sides  of  the 
terminal  branches.  Each  flower  is  supported  on  a 
green  slender  thread,  from  one-flfth  to  half  an  inch 
long,  and  consists  of  a  brown  cup  parted  into  seven  or 
eight  divisions,  and  containing  about  eight  brown  sta- 
mens, and  a  long  compressed  ovary,  surmounted  by  two 
short  styles.  This  ripens  into  a  flattened  seed-vessel, 
called  a  samara,  which  is  winged  on  every  side  with  a 
thin  fringed  border.  The  flowers  appear  early  in  April 
or  even  in  March,  and  the  samarse  are  mature  before 
the  expansion  of  the  leaves. 

The  leaves  are  on  very  short  petioles,  broad  ovate, 
heart-shaped  or  rounded  at  base,  acuminate  at  apex, 
doubly  serrate  at  margin ;  divided  by  the  midrib  into 
very  unequal  parts  of  which  the  upper  is  larger  — 
somewhat  woolly  when  young,  afterwards  roughish  on 
both  surfaces ;  usually  from  two  to  four  inches  long, 


NAERATION   AND   DESCEIPTION   COMBINED.  89 

and  one  and  a  half  to  two  and  a  half  broad,  but  varjdng 
extremely  in  size.  The  rich  green  of  the  leaves  turns 
in  autumn  to  a  sober  brown,  which  is  sometimes  touched 
with  a  bright  golden  yellow. 

The  elm  grows  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Georgia,  and 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  The  Washington  Elm 
in  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  is  the  most  famous  elm 
in  this  country,  so-called  because  under  its  shade  Gen- 
eral Washington  is  said  to  have  first  drawn  his  sword 
on  taking  command  of  the  American  army.  The  cele- 
brated Whitefield  preached  under  the  shade  of  this  tree 
in  1744.  A  single  crop  of  the  leaves  of  this  tree,  if  laid 
side  by  side,  would  cover,  it  is  estimated,  two  acres  of 
ground.  —  From  Trees  and  Shruhs  of  Massachusetts,  by 
G-eorge  B.  Umersoti. 

What  is  an  Etruscan  vase?  How  many  forms  of  elm  trees? 
Distinguish  tliem.  How  do  the  roots  of  the  ehn  grow,  deep  or 
near  the  surface?  Do  you  know  a  tree  which  has  the  Etruscan 
form?  the  round  liead  ?  the  plume?  feathery  trunk?  What 
time  does  the  elm  blossom  ?  What  time  does  it  ripen  its  samarre  ? 
What  is  an  acuminate  apex?  serrate  margin?  doubly  serrate? 
Measure  the  largest  elm  in  your  neighborhood  one  foot  from  the 
ground.  Compare  any  elm  that  you  know  with  the  foregoing 
description.  Make  out  the  skeleton  or  plan  upon  which  this  de- 
scription was  written. 


LESSON   XXXIV.  — THE   OAK. 

EXERCISE   I.  —  OUTLINE   OF   DESCRIPTION. 

The  writer  should  verify  this  outline  by  some  tree  that  is  well- 
known,  and  then  write  it  with  whatever  changes  are  needed  to 
make  it  a  correct  description  of  a  particular  tree. 

Size.  —  Circumference  one  foot  from  ground.  Estimate  the 
height  of  the  tree.     Height  of  trunk  before  branches  appear. 


90  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Characteristics.  —  Sturdy  trunk.  Limbs  go  out  at  a  large  angle 
and  stretch  horizontally  a  long  distance.  Limbs  large,  crooked, 
gnarled,  bent. 

Root.  —  Descends  deep  into  the  earth. 

Leaves.  —  Two  families  of  oaks.  While  Oak  Family  have  more 
or  less  deeply  lobed  leaves  —  lobes  round  or  blunt. 

Red  Oak  Familij  have  deeply  cut  leaves,  with  the  divisions  ter- 
minating in  a  long  bristle-like  point. 

Leaves  come  out  with  or  just  before  the  flowers;  turn  brown  or 
scarlet  in  autumn. 

Flowers.  —  Two  kinds,  sterile  and  fertile.  Sterile  are  in  long, 
slender,  pendulous  catkins,  which  are  in  groups.  Fertile  are  small, 
in  a  bud-like  scaly  cup.  Flowers  appear  with  or  just  after  the 
leaves. 

Fruit.  —  Acorns.  Different  species  vary  in  acorns;  some  long 
and  slender,  others  short  and  round.  All  acorns  grow  in  cups ; 
these  vary.  Acorns  of  Wliite  Oak  Family  are  almost  sweet  and 
grow  in  one  season.  Those  of  the  Red  Oak  Family  require  two 
seasons  to  come  to  maturity. 

Varieties  of  Oak.  —  Red,  black,  scarlet,  scrub,  white,  chestnut, 
etc. 

Use  of  Oak.  —  Ship  timber,  —  woodwork  of  houses,  —  articles 
of  furniture. 

Miscellaneous. — Druids'  regard  for  oak  trees.  —  Oak  grove  at 
Dodona.  —  Oak  galls.  —  Famous  oaks.  —  Poems  about  oaks. 

LIST  OF  TEEES  FOE,  SIMILAE  DESCEIPTION. 


Cherry 

Willow 

Beech 

Poplar 

Maple 

Birch 

Apple 

Linden 

Hickory 

Magnolia 

Sycamore 

Pine 

Chestnut 

Dogwood 

Buckeye 

Larch 

Note.  —  The  cherry  gives  beautiful  wood  for  cabinet  work ;  takes  a  very 
high  polish.  There  are  three  varieties  of  the  maple  which  are  common,  — 
sugar,  white  or  silver,  and  red.  May  be  distinguished  by  their  leaves,  also 
by  their  blossoms.  The  twigs  and  flowers  of  the  red  maple  are  a  deep 
scarlet  color  in  the  spring ;  long  before  any  other  flowers  appear.  Lowell 
says,  "The  maple  reddens  to  a  coral  reef."  Both  sugar  and  red  maple 
show  the  curly  and  bird's-eye  varieties.  Hickory  gave  the  well-known 
sobriquet  of  General  Andrew  Jackson.    Chestnut  is  cultivated  in  the  West 


NARRATION   AND   DESCRIPTION   COMBINED.  91 

for  its  nuts ;  its  wood  is  very  lasting.  Willow  is  used  most  extensively  in 
the  production  of  charcoal  for  gunpowder.  Bark  of  birch  was  used  by  the 
Indians  in  making  their  canoes.  Several  varieties  grow  in  the  United 
States.  The  black  birch  is  the  one  whose  bark  is  pleasant  to  eat.  The 
white  birch  was  called  by  Coleridge  "The  Lady  of  the  Forest."  Beech  is 
noticeable  for  its  smooth  gray  bark  and  fine  delicate  twigs ;  its  nuts  are 
small  but  sweet,  and  much  loved  by  squirrels.  The  apple  tree  in  old  age 
is  one  of  the  most  picturesque  of  trees ;  it  is  so  bent  and  gnarled  as  to  pos- 
sess a  beauty  of  ugliness.  Dogwood  bears  the  buds  of  its  flowers  very 
plainly  in  the  fall.  On  one  branch  in  October  you  find  the  leaves,  the  ripe 
fruit,  and  the  buds  for  next  year's  blossoms.  The  sycamore  is  perhaps 
better  known  by  its  name  button-ball.  Seeds  of  the  pine  are  the  thin 
scales  found  in  the  cones;  and  the  pollen  of  the  pine  is  the  substance 
popularly  supposed  to  be  sulphur  which  frequently  falls  during  rain-storms. 

BOOKS  OF   REFERENCE. 

Trees  and  Shrubs  of  Maxsnch  usctts    ....     George  B.  Emerson. 

A  Year  amoncj  the  Trees Wilson  Flagg. 

Trees  and  Tree-Planting J.  S.  Brisbin. 


LESSON   XXXV.  — GENERAL   SUBJECTS  OONOEENINa 

TEEES, 

Shade  Trees  for  Cities. 

What  are  the  adverse  conditions  in  cities  ?  What  trees  can  be.st 
withstand  them  ?  Care  which  city  trees  shoukl  have  to  compensate 
for  their  disadvantages.     Kinds  that  are  best  for  cities. 

Autumn  LeaA-es. 

Note  the  autumn  colors  of  the  leaves  of  maple,  elm,  beech,  oak, 
willow,  etc. 

Read  Autumnal  Tints,  by  Henry  D.  Thoreau. 

Evergreen  Trees. 

Different  varieties.  When  do  they  lose  their  leaves  ?  Character 
of  their  leaves  —  form  of  their  tniidvs.  Mammoth  trees  of  Cali- 
fornia are  evergreens. 


92  STUDIES    IN    EN(Ji;iSH    COMPOSITION. 

Niit  Trees. 

Hickory,  walnut,  butternut,  chestnut,  beechnut,  oak,  etc. 

Effect  of  Forests  upon  a  Country. 

Kainf all  —  fertility  —  streams  —  "  windbreaks  "  for  crops  — 
beauty — animal  life.  —  Destruction  of  forests.  —  Ways  in  which 
the  wood  of  the  country  is  being  used  apart  from  its  use  as  fuel.  — 
Railroad  ties  —  houses  —  barns  —  furniture  —  wooden  ware  —  han- 
dles of  utensils  —  matches  —  pencils  —  spools  —  toothpicks. 

Historic  Trees. 

The  cypresses  of  Montezuma  at  Chapultepec,  Mexico.  The 
chestnut  of  a  hundred  horsemen  upon  Mt.  Etna.  The  Wadsworth 
Oak  at  Genesee,  N.Y.,  said  to  be  five  centuries  old.  Washington's 
Elm  at  Cambridge,  Mass.  The  Charter  Oak  at  Hartford,  Conn. 
The  Old  Elm  on  Boston  Common.  Arnold's  Willow  opposite  West 
Point.  Treaty  Elm  on  the  banks  of  the  Delaware,  under  which 
William  Penn  made  a  treaty  with  the  Indians  in  1682.  Pope's 
Willow  at  Twickenham,  England.  Tell  somethhig  of  the  history 
of  these  trees,  why  famoiis,  and  if  now  in  existence. 

Trees  in  Mythology. 

Oaks  of  Dodona ;  Olive  of  Pallas  Athene ;  Igdrasyl,  the  tree 
of  the  universe ;  Laurel  as  Daphne ;  Soma,  the  sacred  tree  of 
India. 

Trees  as  Symbols. 

Palm,  of  victory;  laurel,  of  triumph  ;  oak,  of  strength;  cypress, 
of  woe ;  olive,  of  peace ;  willow,  of  grace. 

Arbor  Day. 

How  it  is  generally  observed.  Is  it  the  same  day  in  all  states  ? 
Why  not?  What  peculiarity  of  Nebraska  made  its  authorities 
think  of  instituting  an  Arbor  Day  ? 


NARRATION    AND    DESCRIPTION    CO^NIBINED.  93 

Fruit  Trees. 

Peach  —  plum  —  apple  —  cheriy —  apricot.  Xative  land  of  each. 
How  fruits  are  improved  —  grafts  —  seedlings.  Wild  fruits  of  the 
United  States  —  their  value  as  food. 

Poems  about  Trees. 

Woodman,  spare  that  Tree George  P.  Morris. 

The  Planting  of  the  Apple  Tree  .     .     .  William  Cullen  Brj'ant. 

A  Forest  Ilijmn William  Cullen  Bryant. 

The  Oak James  Russell  Lowell. 

The  Palm  Tree John  G.  Whittier. 

The  Brave  Old  Oak Henry  F.  Chorley. 

The  Oak  Tree MaryHowitt. 

The  Trees Lucy  Larcom, 


LESSON   XXXVL  — PLOWEES.     STUDY  OP  TEEMS. 

The  botanical  terms  relating  to  the  flower  —  calyx, 
sepal ;  corolla,  petal,  perianth ;  stamens,  filament,  anther  ; 
pistil,  ovary,  ovules,  style,  stigma  —  must  be  thoroughly 
understood. 

Also  the  terms  of  inflorescence,  —  scape,  raceme, 
catkin,  umbel,  head,  spike. 

And  the  terms  descriptive  of  kinds  of  leaves,  — 
simple,  compound,  lobed,  cut ;  of  venation  of  leaves,  — 
net-veined,  parallel- veined ;  of  forms  of  leaves,  —  oval, 
lanceolate,  orbicular ;  margins  of  leaves,  —  serrate,  den- 
tate, crenate,  entire ;  the  apex  of  leaves,  —  acute, 
obtuse  ;  the  bases,  —  acute,  obtuse,  cordate,  sagittate, 
auriculate. 

Note.  —  Any  botany  will  give  the  meaning  of  these  terms,  and  suffi- 
cient time  should  bo  given  to  tlieir  study  to  make  them  familiar.  Tlicy 
can  best  be  learned  and  most  quickly  by  means  of  study  of  sijeeiuieus. 


94  STUDIES    IN    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

LESSON  XXXVII.  —  DESOEIPTIONS  OP  PLANTS. 

EXERCISE   I.- — THE   WILD   ROSE. 

The  rose  which  grows  by  the  roadsides  and  in  the 
fields  blossoms  in  June.  The  bush  is  low,  and  the 
flowers  grow  in  loose  clusters  or  solitary.  The  calyx 
consists  of  a  single  green  cup  with  five  lobes  that  look 
like  separate  sepals.  The  corolla  is  made  up  of  five 
separate  petals,  each  of  a  delicate  pink  color,  and  some- 
what notched  at  the  edge.  There  are  many  stamens 
with  light  yellow  filaments  and  bright  yellow  anthers. 
There  are  many  pistils  growing  out  of  the  calyx  cup ;  each 
has  its  ovary,  style,  and  stigma.  The  fruit  of  the  rose 
is  the  hip,  a  bright  red  ball  crowned  with  the  calyx  lobes. 

The  rose  leaf  is  compound,  made  of  five  leaflets.  It 
has  a  stipule  at  the  base.  Each  leaflet  is  oval  in  shape, 
has  an  obtuse  base  and  an  acute  apex.  Cultivated  roses 
differ  from  wild  ones  in  that  they  have  more  petals, 
with  fewer  stamens  and  pistils. 

LIST  OF  PLANTS   FOR   SIMILAR  DESCRIPTIONS. 

The  Petunia. 

Note  its  bushy  shape ;  its  clammy,  sticky  leaves ;  the  shape  of 
the  leaves,  —  apex,  base,  and  margins.  Observe  how  the  flowers 
grow  ill  the  axils  of  the  leaves;  shape  of  the  flowers  —  funnel- 
form —  five  lobes  of  calyx  —  five  lobes  of  corolla  —  five  stamens 
inserted  on  corolla  tube.  Note  the  different  colors,  —  single  and 
double  varieties.  Natives  of  South  America ;  grow  rapidly  from 
seed ;  can  be  propagated  by  slips.  Add  any  personal  experiences 
in  growing  petunias. 

The  Fuchsia. 

Named  from  a  German  botanist,  Dr.  Fuchs.  South  American 
plant  —  many  varieties;    color,  all  sliades  and   tints   of   red  with 


NARRATION   AND    DESCRIPTION    COMBINED.  95 

white  and  purple;  woody,  like  a  little  tree.  Observe  the  arrange- 
ment of  leaves  on  branches ;  shape  of  leaves ;  blossom  in  fours, 
instead  of  fives,  as  in  the  petunia.  iSTecessary  care  that  the  fuchsia 
requires.     Does  it  ripen  seed?     How  propagated? 

The  Nasturtium. 

Common  garden  flower,  — very  irregular,  —  brought  from  Peru. 
"  Peru  is  apt  to  grow  sun-colored  flowers,  and  thence  comes  what  we 
call  the  nasturtium,  though  it  has  one  very  good  English  name,  — 
Indian  Cress,  and  one  Latin  one,  Tropajolum,  or  trophy,  —  given 
because  the  leaves  are  like  shields  and  the  flowers  like  golden  hel- 
mets. It  is  a  droll  flower,  with  its  yellow  calyx  growing  out  into 
a  long  spur  behind,  and  the  little  fringes  to  its  yellow  or  orange 
petals."  —  Charldtte  M.  Yonge. 

Tulip. 

Care  of  a  tulip  bed  —  when  planted  —  when  blossoms.  Describe 
leaf  —  note  the  venation  —  observe  that  the  flower  is  in  threes,  as 
the  fuchsia  is  in  fours,  and  the  petunia  in  fives.  Colors  of  flower. 
Add  something  of  the  history  of  tulips.  Where  do  the  bulbs 
come  from  ? 

Note.  —  There  is  no  intention  of  confining  the  list  to  those  mentioned  ; 
members  of  the  class  may  select  for  description  any  flowers  that  they 
know. 


LESSON  XXXVIII.  — GENEEAL  SUBJECTS   EELATING   TO 

PLOWEES. 

National  Flowers  and  those  Associated  with  Em- 
inent Persons. 

Rose,  the  national  flower  of  England  ;  the  thistle,  of  Scotland  ; 
the  shamrock,  of  Ireland  ;  the  lily,  of  France ;  the  marguerite,  of 
Italy ;  the  stephanotis,  of  Austria ;  the  mignonette,  of  Saxony ; 
the  chrysanthemum,  of  Japan  ;  the  cactus,  of  IMexico ;  the  maple 
leaf,  of  Canada.  United  States  has  none.  Old  Egypt  had  the 
lotus. 


96  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

The  red  rose  was  the  badge  of  the  House  of  Lancaster;  the 
white  rose,  that  of  York ;  the  violet  was  tlie  favorite  flower  of 
Napoleon  T. ;  the  cornflower,  or  blue  bachelor's  button,  that  of 
Kaiser  William  I.  of  (iermany.  Tell  as  many  of  the  stories  as 
you  can  find  which  give  the  reason  for  the  selection  of  these 
flowers.  Since  the  United  States  has  no  national  flower,  how  can 
she  get  one?  What  would  you  prefer  as  the  national  flower? 
Why? 

The  Rose  Family. 

Roses,  apples,  peaches,  plums,  pears,  strawberries,  raspberries, 
blackberries.  How  are  all  these  roses?  In  what  do  the  flowers 
differ  ?     In  what  are  they  alike  ? 

Wild  Flowers  of  Spring. 

Read  Tlie  Procession  of  the  Floioers,  in  Out-Door  Papers,  by 
Thomas  W.  Higginson. 

Wild  Flowers  of  Autumn. 

Aster,  golden-rod,  iron-weed,  milkweed,  eupatorium,  sunflower. 

"  The  wind-flower  and  the  violet,  they  perished  long  ago  ; 
And  the  briar-rose  and  the  orchis  died  amid  the  summer  glow ; 
But  on  the  hill  the  goldeu-rod,  and  the  aster  in  the  wood, 
And  the  yellow  sunflower  by  the  brook,  in  Autumn  beauty  stood, 
Till  fell  the  frost  from  the  clear  cold  heaven,  as  falls  the  plague  on  men, 
And  the  brightness  of  their  smile  was  gone  from  upland,  glade,  and  glen." 
ZVie  Death  of  the  Floioers,  by  William  Cullen  Bryant. 

Varieties  of  Wild  Flowers  found  in  November. 

It  will  be  found  a  very  interesting  enterprise  to  hunt  for  wilil 
flowers  in  November  ;  and  the  number  found  will  be  much  larger 
than  any  one  who  has  never  tried  it,  would  suppose. 

The  Flowers  of  the  Months. 

Elm  blossoms  in  February  and  March  ;  maple,  in  April  and 
May ;  cherry  and  apple,  in  May ;  rose,  in  June ;  golden-rod, 
aster,  and  sunflower,  in  August,  September,  and  October  ;  witch- 
hazel,  in  November.     Add  others  to  the  list. 


NARRATION  AND  DESCRIPTION   COMBINED.  97 

Care  of  House  Plants. 

Soil  —  sunlight  —  moisture  —  care  of  leaves.  Effect  of  gas, 
steam,  hot  air.     What  varieties  flourish  in  the  house? 

Flowers  as  Decorations. 

Suitable  for  all  occasions  —  joy  —  sorrow.  Always  an  appro- 
priate gift.  Skill  required  in  arrangement  of  flowers.  The  Japan- 
ese have  made  the  arrangement  of  flowers  a  fine  art,  with  definite 
rules,  not  to  be  ti'ansgressed.  —  See  "Japonica,"  by  Sir  Edwin 
Arnold,  in  Scribner's  Monthly,  December,  ISSK). 

Flowers  of  the  Bible. 

Any  concordance  will  give  the  names  and  references. 

Mythological  and  Sacred  Plants. 

Mistletoe,  sacred  to  the  Druids,  and  still  a  Christmas  decoration. 
Passion-flower  typifies  in  its  parts  the  passion  of  Christ.  Daffo- 
dil, or  Poet's  Narcissus,  was  sacred  to  Persephone.  Asphodel  grew 
in  the  meadows  of  Hades.  Lotus,  sacred  to  Buddha,  and  also  the 
sacred  flower  of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  Pomegranate  was  revered 
by  the  Hebrews,  and  placed  by  them  on  the  robe  of  the  High 
Priest.  Moly  is  the  unknown  plant  that  Homer  says  was  able  to 
fortify  one  against  the  transformations  of  Circe.  The  lily  and  the 
rose  were  sacred  to  the  Virgin  Mary.  Witch-hazel  was  believed  to 
possess  occult  powers. 

The  Flowers  of  American  Poets. 

Study  the  poems  of  Bryant,  Lowell,  Longfellow,  Whittier,  or 
Holmes,  for  allusions  to  flowei's.  An  interesting  comparison  may 
be  made  betw^een  the  flowers  of  Bryant  and  those  of  Lowell,  or 
those  of  Longfellow  and  those  of  Whittier. 

BOOKS    OF    REFERENCE. 

Folk-lore  of  Plants T.  F.  Thistleton  Dyer. 

Out-Door  Papers Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson. 

The  Herb  of  the  Field    ....  Cliarlotte  M.  Yonge. 

Flowers  and  Flower  Lore     .     .     .  liev.  Hilderic  Friend. 


98  STUDIES    IN    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


LESSON  XXXIX.— POEMS  TO  BE  EEAD. 

Each  pupil  should  bring  one  or  more  of  the  following  poems  to 
read  in  class : — 

Daffodils William  Wordsworth. 

The  Rhodora Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 

To  the  Fringed  Gentian  ....  William  Cullen  Bryant. 

The  Death  of  the  Flomrs    .     .     .  William  Cullen  Bryant. 

Jack  in  the  Pidpit From  Cldld  Life. 

Trailing  Arbutus Rose  Terry  Cooke. 

The  Yellow  Violet William  Cullen  Bryant. 

Light  and  Shade Jean  Ingelow. 

Daffy-down-dilhj IVIrs.  Warner. 

Florvers Thomas  Hood. 

Talking  in  llieir  Sleep  ....  Edith  Thomas. 

To  a  Mountain  Daisy      ....  Robert  Burns. 

A  Song  of  Clover Saxe  Holm. 

To  the  Dandelion James  Russell  Lowell. 

The  Clove?- James  Whitcomb  Riley. 

Field  Floivers Thomas  Campbell. 

The  Thistle  Flower Alice  Cary. 

The  Floiver Alfred  Tennyson. 

'Tis  the  Last  Rose  of  Summer  .     .  Thomas  Moore. 


EXERCISE   I.  —  EXPLAIN   THE   FOLLOWING    PLANT 

PROVERBS. 

A  pine  tree  wishes  herself  a  shrub  when  the  axe  is  at  her  root. 
Plant  a  crab  where  you  will,  it  will  never  bear  pippins. 
With  time  and  patience  the  leaf  of  the  mulberry  becomes  satin. 
He  that  would  have  fruit  must  climb  the  tree. 
The  smallest  axe  may  fell  the  largest  oak. 

Wherever  a  man  lives  he  is  sure  to  have  a  thorn-bush  near  his 
door. 

He  that  handles  a  nettle  tenderly  is  soonest  stung. 

Get  tliy  spindle  and  thy  distaff  ready,  and  God  will  send  the  flax. 

The  tree  is  no  sooner  down,  but  every  one  runs  for  his  hatchet. 


STUDY   OF   KHETOJRICAL   FIGURES.  99 


CHAPTER   X. 
STUDY  OF  RHETORICAL  FIGURES. 

Rhetorical  figures  are  intentional  deviations  from  the 
plain  and  ordinary  mode  of  speaking,  for  the  sake  of 
greater  effect.  The  following  are  the  figures  most  com- 
monly used. 


LESSON  XL. -FIGURES  BASED  ON  COMPARISON. 

Simile.  —  A  simile  is  a  compari,son,  definitely  ex- 
pressed, between  objects  that  are  not  of  the  same  class. 

As  and  like  are  the  usual  signs  of  a  simile,  but  so,  just  as,  similar 
to,  and  many  others  may  be  used  for  the  purpose ;  but  only  such 
objects  as  belong  to  different  classes,  when  compared,  form  a 
simile.  "John  is  as  slender  as  his  brother,"  is  no  simile;  but 
"  John  is  as  slender  as  a  young  sapling,"  is  a  simile. 

EXERCISE    I. IN    THE    FOLLOWING    EXAMPLES    POINT 

OUT   IN   WHAT   THE   SIMILE   CONSISTS. 

And  ice,  mast  high,  came  floating  by, 
As  green  as  emerald.  —  S.  T.  Coleridge. 

The  sails  are  scattered  abroad  like  weeds ; 
The  strong  masts  shake  like  quivering  reeds. 

She  told  me  her  story  once  ;  and  it  was  as  if  a  grain  of  corn  that 
had  been  ground  and  bolted  had  tried  to  individualize  itself  by  a 
special  narrative. 


100  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

The  Assyrian  came  down  like  a  wolf  on  the  fold.  —  Byron. 

Bent  like  a  laboring  oar  which  toils  in  the  surf  of  the  ocean ; 
Bent  but  not  broken  by  age  was  the  form  of  the  notary  public. 

Longfellow. 
The  lovely  luoon  climbs  np  the  sky 

As  one  who  walks  in  dreams, 
A  tower  of  marble  in  her  light, 
A  wall  of  black,  a  wall  of  white, 

The  stately  vessel  seems.  —  Loiif/felloir. 

Simile,  being  the  great  illustrative  figure,  is  especially  adapted  to  pro- 
mote clearness  of  thought  and  expression ;  it  is  not  so  well  adapted  to 
force  and  passion.    It  is  very  common  in  imaginative  prose  and  in  poetry. 

EXERCISE   II. 

Write  original  or  well-known  similes. 
Write  similes  using  the  names  of   animals   that  we 
take  as  the  type  of  the  following  conditions :  strength 

—  weakness  — ■  poverty  —  bravery  — brusqueness  —  cold 

—  happiness  —  sickness. 

What  is  the  type  of  freedom  ?  of  weight  ?  uncer- 
tainty ?  Quote  a  simile  from  Longfellow ;  from  Whit- 
tier;  from  Shakespeare. 

Metaphor.  —  A  metaphor  is  a  comparison  which  is 
implied  between  two  objects  that  are  not  of  the  same 
class. 

A  simile  says  that  two  objects  are  alike ;  a  metaphor 
says  that  one  object  is  another,  leaving  the  comparison 
to  be  understood. 

"  That  man  is  like  a  fox  in  his  dealings,"  is  a  simile. 
"  That  man  is  a  fox  in  his  dealings,"  is  a  metaphor. 

Sometimes  a  metaj^hor  consists  sim2)ly  of  a  transferred 
ejiithet. 

The  plowman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way. 


STUDY    OF   KHETOlilCAL   FIGUEES.  101 

EXERCISE    I.  —  POINT    OUT     THE     METAPHORS     IN    THE 
FOLLOWING   EXAMPLES. 

Si^are  moments  are  the  goid-dust  of  time. 

A  steep  and  watery  mountain  rolls  apace. 

Necessity  is  the  mother  of  invention. 

My  winged  boat,  a  bird  afloat, 

Swims  round  the  purple  peaks  remote.  —  iJMcAanan  Read. 

Aloft  on  sky  and  mountain  wall 

Are  God's  great  pictures  hung.  —  Whittier. 

The  bluebird  carries  the  sky  on  his  back.  —  Thoreau. 

Metaphor  is  the  most  common  aud  spontaneous  of  all  the  figures.  Many 
metaphors  can  be  made  directly  from  similes, — in  such  case  the  metaphor 
is  always  stronger  than  the  simile.  For  example,  "Ingratitude  !  thou  fiend 
with  a  heart  like  marble  !  "  is  not  as  strong  as  "  Ingratitude  !  thou  marble- 
hearted  fiend  ! " 

An  extended  metaphor  is  called  an  allegory,  and  in  an  allegory  the  prin- 
cipal subject  is  frequently  omitted. 

EXERCISE   II. 

Write  a  metaphor,  comparing  pride  to  a  rocket ;  truth 
to  hght ;  sorrow  to  a  cloud ;  water  to  crystal ;  sunlight 
to  gold  ;  hope  to  sunlight. 

Write  original  metaphors.     Quote  four  metaphors. 


LESSON  XLL- FIGUEES  BASED  ON  SUBSTITUTION. 

Metonymy.  —  Metonymy  is  a  ligure  of  rhetoric  in 
which  the  name  of  one  object  is  put  for  another,  the 
two  being  so  related  that  the  mention  of  one  recalls  the 

other. 


102  STUDIES    IN    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

The  most  common  forms  of  metonymy  are :  — 
Cause  for  effect. 
Ex.  He  writes  a  good  hand  (handwriting). 

Effect  for  cause. 

Ex.   Death  fell  in  showers  (bullets) . 

The  container  for  the  thing  contained. 
Ex.  The  kettle  boils  (water). 

Tlie  sign  for  the  thing  signified. 

Ex.   The  pen  is  mightier  than  the  sword  (intelligence  vs.  force). 

The  name  of  an  author  for  his  works. 
Ex.  We  read  Longfellow. 

EXERCISE    I. TELL    WHAT    KIND    OF   METONYMY   IS 

FOUND   IN    THE    FOLLOWING   EXAMPLES. 

Strike  for  your  altars  and  your  fires. 

Beware  the  cup. 

They  have  Moses  and  the  Prophets. 

He  smokes  his  pipe. 

The  sun  drove  us  indoors. 

The  stars  and  stripes  now  float  over  Alaska. 

EXERCISE  II. 

Write  an  example  of  metonymy  in  which  the  ballot 
represents  the  voter,  and  the  bullet  tlie  soldier.  One 
using  the  name  of  an  author  for  his  works ;  cause  for 
effect ;  sign  for  thing  signified ;  container  for  thing 
contained. 

Synecdoche.  —  Synecdoche  is  a  figure  of  rhetoric  in 
which  the  name  of  a  part  is  used  for  a  whole,  or  the 
whole  for  a  part.     It  is  really  a  specialized  form  of 


STUDY   OF   RHETORICAL   FIGURES.  103 

metonymy ;    the  idea  being  that  the  name  of  a  whole 
and  of  a  part  are  interchangeable. 

The  variations  of  synecdoche  are  :  — 

Use  of  a  definite  number  for  an  indefinite. 

Ex.   Ten  thousand  fleets  sweep  over  thee  in  vahi! 

Tlie  species  for  the  genus. 

Ex.  A  second  Daniel  come  to  judgment. 

The  material  for  the  thing  made. 

Ex.  The  marble  speaks. 

EXERCISE   I. — EXPLAIN   THE   SYNECDOCHE   IN   THESE 

EXA]VIPLES. 

Fifty  sail  are  on  the  horizon. 

Belinda  smiled,  and  all  the  world  was  gay.  —  Pope. 

He  stands  a  Saul  among  his  fellows. 

He  employs  a  score  of  hands. 

His  hoary  head  in  silver  rolled ; 

He  seemed  some  seventy  winters  old.  —  Scott. 

All  hands  to  the  pumps  ! 

He  raised  his  glittering  steel  on  high. 

EXERCISE   II.  —  GIVE   AN   EXAMPLE   OF    EACH   KIND   OF 
SYNECDOCHE,    EITHER    ORIGINAL   OR   QUOTED. 


LESSON  XLII.  -  ADDITIONAL  PIGUEES. 

Personification.  —  Personification  consists  in  giving 
human  feeling  and  intelligence  to  inanimate  things. 

The  English  language  is  especially  adapted  to  effective  personi- 
fication, because  the  gender  of  nouns  depends  upon  the  sex  or  want 
of  sex  of  the  objects  named,  and  not  upon  grammatical  distinctions. 


104  STUDIES    IN    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

EXERCISE  I.  —  EXPLAIN   THE   FOLLOWING   EXAMPLES. 

Grim-visaged  war  has  smootlied  his  wrinkled  front.  —  Shakespeare. 

And  freedom  shrieked  as  Kosciusko  fell.  —  Camphell. 

The  conscious  water  saw  its  Lord  and  blushed.  — MtY/on. 

I  chatter,  chatter  as  I  flow, 

To  join  the  brimming  river, 
For  men  may  come  and  men  may  go, 

But  I  go  on  forever.  —  Tenni/son's  Brook. 

Allusion.  —  Allusion  is  an  historical  or  literary  refer- 
ence more  or  less  distinct. 

EXERCISE   I. —  EXPLAIN    THE    FOLLOWING    ALLUSIONS. 
When  I  was  a  beggarly  boy 

And  lived  in  a  cellar  damp, 
I  had  not  a  friend  or  a  toy, 

But  I  had  Aladdin's  lamp.  —  Lowell. 

The  wolf,  in  order  to  justify  his  intended  slaughter,  complained 
loudly  of  the  misdeeds  of  the  lamb. 

Climax.  —  Climax,  or  the  rhetorical  ladder,  is  the 
arrangement  of  a  succession  of  words,  or  clauses,  in 
such  a  way  that  the  weakest  may  stand  first ;  and  that 
each  in  turn  may  rise  in  importance  and  make  a  deeper 
impression  on  the  mind  than  that  which  preceded  it. 
Anti-climax  reverses  the  order:  this  is  often  used  in 
humorous  writings. 

EXERCISE    I.  —  EXPLAIN    THE    FOLLOWING    EXAMPLES. 

I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered. 

Since  concord  was  lost,  friendship  was  lost,  fidelity  was  lost, 
liberty  was  lost,  —  all  was  lost. 

We  have  petitioned,  we  have  remonstrated,  we  liave  supplicated, 
we  have  prostrated  ourselves  before  the  throne.  —  Patrick  Henry. 

Hyperbole.  —  Hyperbole  is  exaggeration.  It  is  some- 
times very  effective,  but  should  be  used  sparingly. 


STUDY   OF    RHETORICAL    FIGURES.  105 


EXERCISE   I. EXPLAIN  THE   FOLLOWING   HYPERBOLES. 

They  were  swifter  than  eagles;  they  were  stronger  than  lions. 

Here  once  the  embattled  farmers  stood, 

And  fired  the  shot  heard  round  the  world.  —  Emerson. 

Irony.  —  Irony  is  language  that,  taken  literally,  ex- 
presses the  contrary  of  what  is  meant.  The  tone  or 
manner  of  the  speaker  shows  the  meaning. 

Ex.  Then  Elijah  said  to  the  prophets  of  Baal,  "  Cry  aloud,  for 
he  is  a  god." 


LESSON  XLIII.  — STUDY  Or  EXAMPLES  OE  EHETOEIOAL 

FIGUEES. 

Point  out  and  explain  the  figures  in  these  examples. 

The  quality  of  mercy  is  not  strained  ; 

It  droppeth  as  the  gentle  rain  from  heaven 

Upon  the  place  beneath.  —  Shakespeare. 

Lo,  with  a  mournful  sound  like  the  voice  of  a  vast  congregation, 
Solemnly  answered  the  ocean.  —  Longfellow. 

But  he  the  favorite  and  the  flower, 
Most  cherished  since  his  natal  hour, 

***** 
He,  too,  was  struck,  and  day  by  day 
Was  withei'ed  on  the  stalk  away.  —  Byron. 

The  sceptre  shall  not  depart  from  Judah.  —  Bible. 

Soon  as  the  evening  shades  prevail, 
The  moon  takes  up  the  wondrous  tale, 
And  nightly  to  the  listening  earth 
Repeats  the  story  of  her  birth.  —  Addison. 

A  thousand  shall  fall  at  thy  side  ;  and  ten  thousand  at  thy  right 
hand,  but  it  shall  not  come  nigh  thee.  —  Bible. 

Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread.  —  Bible. 


106  STUDIES    IN    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

IIow  sweet  the  moonlight  sleeps  upon  this  bank.  —  Shakespeare. 
Give  every  man  thine  ear,  but  few  thy  voice.  —  Shakespeare. 
Suffer  not  yourselves  to  be  betrayed  with  a  kiss.  —  Patrick  Henry. 
Friends,  Romans,  countrymen,  lend  nie  your  ears.  —  Shakespeare. 

Yes,  the  year  is  growing  old 

And  his  eye  is  pale  and  bleared ; 

Death  with  frosty  hand  and  cold 

Plucks  the  old  man  by  the  beard.  —  Lojir/fellow. 

Night's  candles  are  burnt  out,  and  jocund  Day 

Stands  tiptoe  on  the  misty  mountain  tops.  —  Shakespeare. 

With  storm-daring  pinion  and  sun-gazing  eye, 

The  Gray  Forest  Eagle  is  king  of  the  sky.  —  A.  B.  Street. 

Olympus  is  but  the  outside  of  the  earth  everywhere. 

An  Austerlitz  is  not  Heaven's  stamp  of  approval. 

Sport  that  wrinkled  Care  derides. 

And  Laughter  holding  both  his  sides.  —  Milton. 

He  then  di-ew  a  picture  of  the  sufferings  of  our  Saviour;  his 
trial  before  Pilate,  his  ascent  up  Calvary,  his  crucifixion,  and  his 
death.  —  William  Wirt. 

The  waters  slept.     Night's  silvery  vail  hung  low. 
On  Jordan's  bosom.  —  Willis. 

Tender-handed  grasp  the  nettle,  and  it  stings  you  for  your  pains; 
Grasp  it  like  a  man  of  mettle,  and  it  soft  as  silk  remains. 

One  sees  with  each  month  of  the  many-faced  year, 

A  thousand  sweet  changes  of  beauty  appear.  —  Owen  Meredith. 

What  has  the  gray-haired  prisoner  done? 
Has  murder  stained  his  hands  with  gore  ? 
Not  so;  his  crime  is  a  fouler  one  — 
God  made  the  old  man  poor.  —  Whittier. 

Announced  by  all  the  trumpets  of  the  sky 
Arrives  the  snow,  and  driving  o'er  the  fields 
Seems  nowhere  to  alight.  — Emerson. 


STUDY  OF  AUTHORS.  107 


CHAPTER  XL  — STUDY  OF  AUTHORS. 

LESSON   XLIV.  — HENRY  WADSWOETH  LONGPELLOW. 

Born  at  Portland,  Me.,  Feb.  27,  1807. 
Died  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  March  24,  1882. 

Each  pupil  should  have  a  complete  copy  of  Longfellow's  poems. 

t 

EXERCISE    T.  —  STUDY    OF    BALLADS. 

Class  should  read  carefully  these  ballads,  and  be  prepared  to 
answer  orally  the  questions  below. 

Tlie  Skeleton  in  Armor. 
The  Wreck  of  the  Hesperus, 
The  Luck  of  Edenhalh 
The  Elected  Knight. 

What  is  a  balhid  ?  How  was  the  poem  The  Skeleton  in  Armor 
suggested  to  Longfellow?  What  is  the  meaning  of  Viking?  skald? 
saga?  skoal?  What  tower  is  referred  to  in  the  poem?  Note  the 
similes  in  the  poem.  How  many  syllables  in  each  line  of  the 
stanza  beginning,  "  I  was  a  Viking  bold "  ?  Which  ones  are 
accented?  Which  lines  rhyme?  How  many  syllables  in  each  line 
of  the  first  stanza  of  The  Wreck  of  the  He.^perus  ?  What  circum- 
stances suggested  this  poem  ?  Which  lines  rhyme  ?  How  many 
figures  in  the  second  stanza?  What  are  they?  Where  is  the 
Spanish  Main  ?  What  is  a  skipper?  What  allusion  in  this  poem? 
Is  there  any  historical  basis  for  The  Luck  of  Edenhall  ?  What  was 
the  luck?  What  is  a  Fountain  Sprite?  Who  once  believed  in 
them?  What  makes  a  kind  of  refrain  to  the  poem?  Are  there 
any  stanzas  in  The  Elected  Knighl  that  are  without  rhymes? 
Which  of  the  four  poems  do  you  like  the  best  ? 


108  •    STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

EXERCISE   II.  —  KEAD   THE    FOLLOWING   TALES   OF   A 

WAYSIDE   INN. 

Paul  Revere's  Ride. 

The  Falcon  of  Ser  Feclerigo, 

King  Robert  of  Sicily. 

Tlie  Bell  of  Atri. 

The  Legend  of  Rabbi  Ben  Levi. 

The  Ballad  of  Camiilhan. 

The  Legend  Beautiful. 

Each  member  of  the  class  should  be  able  to  give  orally  the  story 
of  one  of  these  poems,  noting  its  figures,  its  historical  and  geo- 
graphical allusions ;  telling  the  number  of  syllables  in  each  line  of 
the  first  stanza,  the  number  of  lines  in  that  stanza,  and  which  lines 
rhyme.  AVho  sent  Paul  Revere  on  his  ride  ?  Did  Revere  himself 
reach  Concord?  The  real  name  of  the  North  Church  is  Christ 
Church,  and  it  still  stands  on  Salem  Street.  AVhy  were  the  British 
soldiers  called  Regulars  ?  Redcoats  ?  Does  the  English  army  still 
wear  red?  Where  is  the  Arno?  How  large  is  it?  What  is  a 
falcon?  What  time  of  year  is  it  in  the  poem,  The  Falcon  of  Ser 
Federi(jo?  What  is  the  Talmud?  What  country  is  Allemaine? 
What  is  the  Magnificat?  Where  do  we  find  it?  Who  first  re- 
peated it?  What  day  is  Holy  Thursday  ?  What  kind  of  a  festival 
is  Easter,  fixed  or  movable?  What  is  the  Angelus?  Where  is 
Stralsund  ?  Who  is  Klaboterman  ?  Learn  at  least  two  selections 
from  these  poems.     Find  and  copy  at  least  four  figures  of  rhetoric. 


LESSON  XLV.  —  STUDY  OF  EVANGELINE. 

EXERCISE   I.  —  PART    THE    FIRST. 

Pupils  should  read  the  poem  carefully,  and  be  prepared  to  answer 
the  following  questions. 

Where  is  the  Basin  of  Minas  ?    What  does  Grand  Pre  mean  ? 
Who  were  the  Acadiaus?     In  what  year  were  they  removed?     By 


STUDY   OF   AUTHORS.  .  109 

whom  was  the  removal  made  ?  What  charges  were  made  against  the 
Acadians  as  a  reason  for  their  removal  ?  Are  those  charges  sub- 
stantiated by  history.  From  whom  did  Longfellow  get  the  idea 
of  writing  this  poem  V  Learn  the  introduction.  How  many  sylla- 
bles in  each  line  ?  How  many  accented  syllables  ?  Observe  that 
no  lines  rhyme.  When  there  are  six  accented  syllables  in  a  line, 
the  measure  is  called  hexameter.  This  is  an  unusual  measure  in 
English.  Who  were  the  Druids?  AVhat  nearly  obsolete  word  do 
you  find  in  the  introduction  ?  Select  six  similes,  four  metaphors, 
two  examples  of  metonymy,  two  of  synecdoche,  four  allusions. 

Make  selections  which  describe  places,  persons  ;  which  relate 
stories  ;  narrate  events.  Name  the  characters  in  the  poems  and  the 
relation  they  bear  each  other. 

EXERCISE   II.  —  PART   THE   SECOND. 

What  is  Part  Second  the  story  of  ?  Where  were  the  Acadians 
taken?  What  characters  of  Part  First  are  found  in  Part  Second? 
Observe  the  description  of  the  Mississippi.  What  river  is  called  the 
Beautiful  River?  What  birds  are  mentioned  in  Part  Second? 
What  trees  ?  What  flowers  ?  Observe  especially  the  beautiful 
description  of  the  prairies  —  the  Jesuit  mission  —  the  infirmary  of 
Philadelphia  —  the  death  of  Gabriel. 

LIST  OF  SUBJECTS  FOR  WRITTEN  EXERCISES. 

The  Story  of  the  Poem. 

The  Proportion  of  Description  to  Narration. 

The  Characters  of  the  Poem. 

Rhetorical  Figures  of  the  Poem. 

The  Flowers  of  Evangeline. 

The  Birds  of  Evangeline. 

Impression  of  the  Poem  as  a  Whole. 

'Tis  truth  that  I  speak, 
Had  Theocritus  written  in  English,  not  Greek, 
I  believe  that  his  exquisite  sense  would  scarce  change  a  line, 
In  tliat  rare,  tender,  virgin-like  pastoral  Evangeline. 
That's  not  ancient  nor  modern,  its  place  is  apart 
Where  time  has  no  sway,  in  the  realm  of  pure  Art. 

James  Russell  Lowell. 


110  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMrOSITION. 


LESSON   XLVL  — GENERAL  STUDY  OP  LONGEELLOW. 

exercise  i.  —  oral  exercise  upon  selections  from 
Longfellow's  poems. 

Note.  —  For  this  exercise  there  should  be  assigned  to  each  member  of 
the  class  either  a  single  poem  or  a  group  of  poems.  For  example,  one 
might  take  The  Voices  of  the  Ntijlit ;  another,  the  poems  Bij  the  Seaside  ; 
another,  Morituri  Halutamus ;  and  so  on.  The  preparation  of  the  exer- 
cise should  be  thorough.  The  poem  or  poems  should  be  studied  until  they 
are  well  known ;  if  a  group,  each  poem  should  be  treated  by  itself  ; 
its  subject  given;  a  slight  sketch  of  it;  the  measure;  its  rhetorical 
figures;  its  allusions  exjilained;  its  especial  excellences  marked;  and 
quotations  made  from  it.  The  poem  may  be  compared  to  similar  poems 
of  other  autliors,  or  to  other  poems  of  Longfellow. 

All  this  should  be  put  together  with  as  much  skill  as  each  speaker 
possesses,  and  brightened  by  as  much  wit  and  learning  as  possible.  The 
speaker  should  keep  an  easy  conversational  tone  and  manner  throughout, 
and  be  prepared  to  answer  questions  put  by  different  members  of  the  class 
at  the  close  of  the  exercise. 

LIST  OF  SUITABLE  SELECTIONS. 

Voices  of  the  Night.  The  Masque  of  Pandora. 

Keramos.  Poems  on  Slavery. 

Songs.  Morituri  Sahitanius. 

By  the  Fireside.  Birds  of  Passage  —  Flight  the  First. 

By  the  Seaside.  Birds  of  Passage  —  Flight  the  Second. 

Longfellow  is  probably  the  most  popular  poet  of  the  country.  The 
breadth  of  his  sympathy,  the  variety  of  his  acquisitions,  the  plasticity  of 
his  imagination,  the  vividness  of  his  imagery,  the  equality,  the  beauty,  the 
beneficence  of  his  disposition,  make  him  universally  attractive  and  uni- 
versally intelligible.  Each  of  his  minor  poems  is  pervaded  by  one  thought, 
and  has  that  artistic  luiity  which  comes  from  the  economic  use  of  rich 
material.  The  Htjitin  to  the  Night,  A  Psalm  of  Life,  The  Skeleton  in 
Armor,  The  Villaf/e  Blacksmith,  and  other  of  his  minor  poems  have  found 
a  lodgment  in  the  memory  of  everybody,  and  it  will  be  found  that  their 
charm  consists  in  tlieir  unity  as  well  as  their  beauty,  that  they  ai'e  as 
much  poems,  complete  in  themselves,  as  Evangeline  or  Hiawatha.  Long- 
fellow's iM)wer  of  picturing  to  tlie  eye  and  the  mind  a  scene,  a  j^lace,  an 
event,  a  person,  is  almost  unrivalled.  His  command  of  many  metres,  each 
adapted  to  his  special  subject,  shows  also  how  artistically  he  uses  sound  to 
re-enforce  vision,  and  satisfy  the  ear  while  pleasing  the  eye.  —  Whipple. 


STUDY    OF    AUTHORS.  Ill 


EXERCISE   II. LIFE    OF    LONGFELLOW. 

Short  sketches  of  Longfellow's  life  may  be  found  in  School 
Readers,  Literatures,  and  Encycloppedias.  In  James  Russell  Low- 
ell's Fable  for  Critics  is  an  appreciative  criticism  of  Longfellow. 
In  Stedman's  American  Poets  his  characteristics  as  a  writer  are 
clearly  given.  There  are  lives  of  Longfellow  by  Francis  H.  Under- 
wood, W.  Sloane  Kennedy,  George  Lowell  Austin.  Also,  Life  and 
Letters,  by  Rev.  Samuel  Longfellow. 

The  -poems,  My  Lost  Youth,  Footsteps  of  Angels,  The  Children's 
Hour,  and  Moriluri  Salutamus,  contain  personal  allusions. 

From  these  various  sources  the  members  of  the  class  should 
give  a  sketch  of  his  life  and  his  characteristics  as  a  writer.  This 
may  be  either  oral  or  wa-itten,  and  should  be  enlivened  by  incident 
and  anecdote,  and  should  not  be  simply  a  dry  narration  of  facts. 


LESSON  XL VII.  — QUICK  WORK  UPON  LONGPELLOW'S 

POEMS. 

Each  pupil  should  complete  the  following  exercise  under  the 
eye  of  the  teacher. 

Give  a  quotation  from  Longfellow. 

Name  a  favorite  poem. 

Tell  from  what  poem  quotations  read  by  the  teacher  are  taken. 

Name  the  poems  written  in  hexameter  verse. 

Name  one  poem  written  in  tetrameter  verse  (four  accented  syl- 
lables in  a  line). 

Name  poems  with  refrains  —  narrative  poems  —  descriptive 
poems  —  poems  with  morals  attached. 

Name  a  dramatic  poem  —  a  ballad  —  a  song  —  a  religious  poem 
—  a  poem  of  friendship  —  of  childliood. 

Give  the  story  of  any  poem  remembered. 

Note.  —  In  order  that  this  exercise  may  have  its  greatest  value  it  should 
be  absohUcly  (juic-k  work,  tht-  class  7int  knowing  beforehand  what  they  will 
be  asked  to  do.    It  may  be  either  written  or  oral. 


112  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

LESSON  XLVIII. -NATHANIEL  HAWTHOENE. 

Born  at  Salem,  Mass.,  ,Tiily  4,  1804. 
Died  at  I'lyinoutb,  N.II.,  May  19,  1864. 

There  is  Hawthorne,  with  genius  so  shrinking  and  rare 

That  you  hardly  at  tirst  see  the  strength  that  is  there  ; 

A  frame  so  robust,  witli  a  nature  so  sweet, 

So  earnest,  so  graceful,  so  solid,  so  fleet, 

Is  worth  a  descent  from  Olympus  to  meet. — James  Rvssell  Lowell. 

EXERCISE   I. STUDY   OF   THE   HOUSE   OF    SEVEN 

GABLES. 

Each  pupil  should  read  the  story,  and  be  ready  to  answer  the 

following  questions. 

This  story  is  called  a  romance.  Why?  What  is  the  difference 
between  a  romance  and  a  novel  ?  Was  the  House  of  Seven  Gables 
a  real  house  or  a  structure  of  the  imagination?  Describe  it.  Name 
the  principal  characters  in  the  book.  Give  selections  which  charac- 
terize each,  either  in  personal  appearance  or  in  conduct ;  e.g.  Hep 
zibah,  Judge  Pyncheon,  Clifford,  Phoebe,  and  Holgrave.  Give  selec- 
tions which  describe  places ;  e.g.  the  garden,  Hepzibah's  shop,  etc. 
What  were  the  relations  between  Judge  Pyncheon  and  Clifford? 
Why  would  Hejizibah  receive  nothing  from  her  cousin?  What 
makes  the  description  of  Judge  Pyncheon 's  death  in  the  parlor  so 
impressive?     Explain  Ilexvibah's  and  Clifford's  flight. 

LIST  OF  SUBJECTS  FOR  WRITTEN  EXERCISES. 

Hawthorne's  Descriptions  of  Persons. 

His  Descriptions  of  Places. 

The  Implied  Mystery  of  the  Story. 

How  far  the  Story  is  derived  from  Real  Life. 

Impression  of  the  Story  as  a  Whole. 

The  scene  of  The  House  of  Seven  Gables,  by  Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  is 
laid  in  the  old  Puritanic  town  of  Salem,  and  extends  from  the  period  of  the 
witchcraft  excitement  to  the  present  time,  connecting  the  legends  of  the 
ancient  superstition  with  the  recent  marvels  of  animal  magnetism,  and 
affording  full  scope  for  the  indulgence  of  the  most  weird  and  sombre  fancies. 

In  no  former  production  of  his  pen,  are  his  unrivalled  powers  of  descrip- 
tion displayed  to  better  advantage.  The  rusty  wooden  house  in  Pyncheon 
Street,  with  its  seven  sharp-pointed  gables,  and  its  huge  clustered  chimney 
—  the  old  elm  tree  before  the  door  —  the  grassy  yard  seen  through  the  lat- 


STUDY   OP    AUTHORS.  113 

tice-fence,  with  its  enormous  fertility  of  burdocks,  and  the  green  moss  on 
the  slopes  of  the  roof,  with  the  flowers  growing  aloft  in  the  air  iu  the  nook 
between  two  of  the  gables,  present  a  picture  to  the  eye  as  distinct  as  if  our 
childhood  had  been  passed  in  the  shadow  of  the  weather-beaten  edifice. 

Nor  are  the  characters  of  the  story  drawn  with  less  sharp  and  vigorous 
perspective.  They  stand  out  from  the  canvas  as  living  realities.  In  spite 
of  the  supernatural  drapery  in  which  they  are  enveloped,  they  have  such  a 
genuine  expression  of  flesh  and  blood,  that  we  cannot  doubt  we  have  known 
them  all  our  days.  They  have  the  air  of  old  acquaintances  —  only  we 
wonder  how  the  artist  got  them  to  sit  for  their  likenesses.  The  grouping 
of  these  personages  is  managed  with  admirable  artistic  skill. 

Old  Maid  Pyncheou,  concealing  under  her  scowl  the  unutterable  tender- 
ness of  a  sister  — her  woman-hearted  brother,  on  whose  sensitive  nature 
had  fallen  such  a  strange  blight  —  sweet  and  beautiful  Phoebe,  the  noble 
village  maiden  whose  presence  is  always  like  that  of  some  shining  angel  — 
the  dreamy,  romantic  descendant  of  the  legendary  wizard  — the  unscrupu- 
lous Judge  and  wise  old  Uncle  Venner — are  all  made  to  occupy  the  place 
on  the  canvas  which  shows  the  lights  and  shades  of  their  character  in  the 
most  impressive  contrast,  and  contributes  to  the  wonderful  vividness  and 
harmony  of  the  grand  historical  picture.  — //arper's  Magazine. 


LESSON  XLIX.  — GENERAL  STUDY  OP  HAWTHOENE. 

EXERCISE   I.  —  STUDY   OF   SHORTER   STORIES. 

Each  pupil  should  read  one  or  more  of  the  books  named. 

Grandfather's  Chair. 

Twice-Told  Tales. 

Snow  Image,  and  Other  Stories. 

American  Notes. 

Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse. 

Tangle-Wood  Tales. 

Note.  —  Each  member  of  the  class  should  make  selection  of  a  story, 
and  give  a  short  sketch  of  it.  Note  those  tilings  which  are  peculiarly  char- 
acteristic of  Hawthorne,  —  the  clear,  simple,  minute  descriptions;  the 
line  of  weird  thought  that  runs  through  so  many  of  his  tales;  the  modern 
tone  in  wliich  lie  retells  tlie  old  stories;  tlie  graph!<!  way  in  which  the 
revolutionary  scenes  are  pictured.  The  Life  of  Hawthorne  may  very  prop- 
erly be  part  of  this  exercise. 

A  study  of  the  writings  of  ITowolls,  Miss  Alcott,  Aldrich,  Whittier, 
Bryant,  and  others  can  easily  be  made  upon  plans  similar  to  those  here  given. 


114  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMrOSITION. 


CHAPTER   XII. 

THE  QUALITIES  OF  STYLE. 

Style  is  the  manner  in  wliich  a  writer  expresses  his 
thoughts  by  means  of  words.  The  essential  qualities 
of  a  good  style  are  usually  considered  under  four  divis- 
ions, —  Clearness,  Unity,  Strength,  and  Harmony.  If 
these  qualities  are  found  in  the  sentence,  they  are  very 
apt  to  be  found  in  the  paragraph; — if  found  in  the 
paragraph,  they  are  likely  to  characterize  the  entire  dis- 
course. 


LESSON  L.  — OLEAENESS. 

The  first  thing  to  be  considered  in  writing  a  sentence 
is  that  it  shall  say  what  it  is  meant  to  say,  that  its 
meaning  shall  be  evident.  Any  sentence  that  fails  in 
this  respect  is  an  incorrect  sentence,  though  it  may  vio- 
late no  rule  of  syntax. 

A  writer  should  know  exactly  what  he  wishes  to  say. 
Then  by  the  use  of  words  which  he  fully  understands, 
taking  care  that  his  sentences  are  not  too  long,  he  can 
easily  make  himself  understood.  A  few  definite  rules 
must  be  followed. 

Rules  for  Clearness. 

Never  use  a  word  whose  meaning  you  do  not  know. 

Never  use  a  word  simply  because  it  sounds  well,  unless  it  says 
what  you  wish  to  say.     Take  nothing  for  granted  in  the  meaning 


THE   QUALITIES    OF    STYLE.  115 

of  words.  It  often  happens  that  careless  writers  transfer  words 
from  books  of  reference  into  their  own  writing  witliout  carefully 
ascertaining  what  tlie  words  mean. 

Choose  carefully  between  two  words  of  similar  mean- 
ing. 

Here  is  an  opportunity  to  apply  all  that  has  been  learned  in  the 
lessons  on  synonyms.  Daily  reference  to  a  dictionary  or  book  of 
synonyms  is  invaluable  to  clearness  of  expression. 

Always  place  the  adverb  near  to  the  word  it  limits. 

Just  before  or  just  after  the  limited  word  is  the  best  place.  In 
the  two  sentences,  The  enemy  nearly  lost  Jive  liundred  men,  and  The 
enemy  lost  nearly  jive  hundred  ??ien,  the  meaning  is  entirely  different, 
owing  to  the  change  in  position  of  the  word  nearly. 

Place  adjective  and  adverbial  phrases  so  that  there 
will  be  no  question  as  to  the  word  they  limit. 

The  sentence.  He  ivas  driving  aivay  from  the  church  ivhere  he  had 
been  married  in  a  coach  and  six,  seems  to  say  that  he  had  been  mar- 
ried in  a  coach  and  six.  That,  of  course,  is  absurd.  By  changing 
the  position  of  a  coach  and  six  the  meaning  and  the  sense  are  both 
preserved. 

The  sentence,  /  saw  my  old  friend  ivhen  1  teas  in  Neio  York,  last 
winter,  walking  down  Broadway,  does  not  tell  who  was  walking 
down  Broadway,  the  friend  or  the  speaker.  A  change  in  the 
position  of  ivalking  down  Broadicay  would  make  it  plain. 

Construct  the  sentence  so  there  can  be  no  doubt  as 
to  the  antecedent  of  each  pronoun,  personal,  relative, 
or  adjective. 

Note.  —  The  incorrect  use  of  personal  pronouns,  already  considered  in 
Chapter  III.,  is  a  fault  against  clearness. 

See  that  the  thoug-ht  you  wish  to  convey  to  others  is 
clearly  conceived  in  your  own  mind  before  you  attempt 
to  express  it. 


116  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

LESSON   LL  — UNITY. 

By  unity  we  mean  tliat  a  sentence  shall  possess  but 
one  fundamental  idea.  Its  parts  should  be  put  together 
so  as  to  make  a  whole.  The  principal  rules  are  as 
follows :  — 

Rules  of  Unity. 

In  the  course  of  one  sentence,  change  the  subject  as 
little  as  possible. 

In  the  sentence,  They  told  me  if  I  would  do  as  you  wished,  viy  father 
ivho  loves  me  devotedly  woidd  answer  all  the  questions  she  asked,  the 
various  subjects  make  it  difficult  to  understand  what  is  really 
meant. 

Things  that  are  slightly  connected  in  sense  should 
not  be  crowded  into  one  sentence. 

The  boy  loent  to  the  fields  ivitli  the  horse  which  his  father  bought  at 
Jackson,  where  Mr.  Williams  lives,  who  lost  four  children  by  the  scar- 
let fever  last  tvinter,  tvhen  ive  had  that  dreadful  snow-storm.  This  sen- 
tence should  be  separated  into  at  least  two  distinct  sentences. 

Avoid  using  and  to  the  exclusion  of  other  and  more 
appropriate  connectives. 

This  is  a  common  fault  of  inexperienced  writers  and  speakers, 
and  has  already  been  mentioned  in  Chapter  I.  It  should  be 
guarded  against  continually,  as  it  utterly  destroys  the  unity  of  a 
sentence. 

Do  not  insert  relative  clauses  into  clauses  that  are 
themselves  relative. 

The  gentlemen  who  came  to  the  place  which  we  had  selected  for  the 
dinner  that  we  meant  to  prepare,  said  it  was  private  grounds.  Such  a 
construction  makes  an  awkward,  cumbersome  sentence. 

Do  not  add  a  supplementary  clause  to  a  sentence 
already  complete. 

There  is  to  be  a  grand  party  next  toeek  to  which  we  shall  all  have 
invitations,  at  least  so  I  hear.  It  would  be  better  to  drop  the  supple- 
mentary clause  and  begin  the  sentence,  /  hear  there,  etc. 


THE   QUALITIES    OF    STYLE.  117 


LESSON   LII.  — STRENGTH. 

A  sentence  may  be  correct,  it  may  be  clear,  it  may 
have  but  one  fundamental  idea,  but  it  may  not  convey 
the  meaning  in  such  a  way  as  to  hold  the  interest  of  the 
reader.  Such  a  sentence  lacks  strength.  The  principal 
rules  for  strength  are  the  following :  — 

Rules  for  Strength. 

Avoid  all  unnecessary  words.  Such  words  appear  in 
three  ways,  —  Tautology,  Redundancy,  Circumlocution. 

Tautology  i«  the  useless  repetition  of  the  same  sense  in  different 
words. 

Never  did  Atticvs  succeed  better  in  gainiyig  the  universal  love  of  all 
men.  Universal  and  <dl  express  the  same  idea;  and  when  one  has  been  used, 
the  other  is  not  needed.  Tautology  is  sometimes  permitted  in  order  to  ex- 
press strong  passion  or  for  the  sake  of  emphasis. 

Redundancy  is  the  addition  of  words  which  are  not  necessary  to 
the  thought.  ♦ 

They  returned  hack  again  to  the  same  city  from  whence  they  came 
forth.  Redundancy  also  is  permitted  to  express  passion  or  for  the  sake  of 
emphasis.     We  have  seen  vjith  our  eyes,  we  have  heard  vnth  our  ears. 

Circumlocution  is  the  use  of  many  words  in  a  loose  way  to  ex- 
press a  thought. 

Avoid  closing  sentences  and  clauses  with  short  and 
unimportant  words. 

While  examples  of  such  sentences  can  be  found  in  the  writings 
of  our  best  English  authors,  nevertheless,  as  a  rule  they  are  to  be 
avoided. 

Frequently  arrange  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  to  a 
climax. 

If  possible  use  the  direct  discourse  rather  than  the 
indirect  when  quoting  the  words  of  another. 


118  STUDIES    IN    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

The  sentence,  Napoleon  mid,  "  If  I  luere  to  r/ivc  (he  liberty  of  the 
press,  my  power  could  not  last  three  days,"  is  stronger  in  that  form 
than  if  it  were,  Napoleon  said  that  if  he  were  to  yive  the  liberty  of  the 
press,  his  power  could  not  last  three  days. 

An  assertion  stated  in  the  interrogative  form  is  often 
stronger  than  when  pnt  in  the  dechirative. 

O  death  !  where  is  thy  stiny  ?     0  grace  !  where  is  thy  victory  f 

Strength  is  often  gained  by  the  use  of  particuLar  in- 
stead of  general  terms. 

"As  we  do  not  think  in  generals,  but  in  particulars,  —  as  when- 
ever any  class  of  things  is  referred  to  we  represent  it  to  ourselves 
by  calling  to  mind  individual  members  of  it,  —  it  follows  that  when 
an  abstract  word  is  used,  the  hearer  or  reader  has  to  choose  from 
his  stock  of  images  one  or  more  by  which  he  may  figure  to  himself 
the  genus  mentioned."  — Herbert  Spencer. 


LESSON   LIIL  — HAEMOKY. 

By  liarmony  is  meant  sucli  an  arrangement  of  the 
words  of  a  sentence  tliat  they  shall  be  pleasant  to  the 
ear.  Not  many  definite  rules  can  be  given,  but  the 
following  may  be  of  use. 

Rules  for  Harmony. 

When  two  or  more  words  are  used  in  the  same  rela- 
tion, it  is  usually  best  to  place  the  shortest  first. 

For  example,  a  warm,  jjleasant  day  instead  of  a  pleasant,  warm 
day. 

Avoid  an  unpleasant  succession  of  similar  sounds  in 
a  sentence. 

The  descent  was  comparatively  easily  and  quickly  made.  The  suc- 
cession of  words  in  ly  is  unpleasant  to  the  ear. 


THE    QUALITIES    OF    STYLE.  119 

A  balanced  sentence  is  usually  harmonious  to  the  ear. 

It  is  an  excellent  plan,  when  composing  any  discourse, 
to  read  or  speak  it  aloud,  as  the  ear  will  then  detect 
the  faults  of  arrangement.  None  of  the  other  qualities 
of  style  should  be  sacrificed  to  harmony,  but  when  har- 
mony can  be  added  to  the  others  it  is  a  great  gain. 


LESSON  LIV.  — STUDY  OF  EXAMPLES  OF  VAEIOUS 
KINDS  OF  STYLE. 

The  following  is  a  paragraph  composed  of  a  single 
sentence  which  has  no  quality  of  style  except  clearness. 
Its  clearness  and  simplicity  give  it  a  pathos  which  finer 
writing  might  not  have.  It  is  the  words  of  a  little  girl, 
telling  of  her  desertion.  The  many  ands  show  the  inex- 
perience of  the  speaker. 

"I  do  not  know  where  she  has  gone;  but  I  am  afraid  she  has 
lost  herself ;  for,  when  we  got  to  the  large  town,  she  told  me  to  sit 
down  on  a  door-step  until  she  came  back  to  me ;  and  I  sat  a  long 
time,  until  it  was  quite  dark,  and  I  was  very  cold  and  hungry ;  and 
she  never  came  back  to  me ;  and  I  could  not  help  crying ;  so  the 
lady  that  lived  in  the  house  heard  me,  and  came  to  me  and  asked 
me  what  was  the  matter ;  and  when  I  told  her,  she  took  me  into 
the  kitchen,  and  gave  me  something  to  eat,  and  was  very  kind  to 
me." 

Here  is  another  example  of  clearness  of  style.  It  is 
a  description  by  Bayard  Taylor,  of  his  travels  in  Sweden. 
His  aim  has  been  simply  to  tell  an  easily  understood 
story. 

"I  made  my  journey  iu  the  winter,  because  I  was  on  my  way  to 
Lapland,  where  it  is  easier  to  travel  when  the  swamps  and  rivers 


120  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COjSIPOSITION. 

are  frozen,  and  the  reindeer  sleds  can  fly  along  on  the  smooth  snow. 
It  was  very  cold  indeed  the  greater  part  of  the  time ;  the  days  were 
.sliort  and  dark,  and  if  I  had  not  found  the  people  so  kind,  so  cheer- 
ful, and  so  honest,  1  should  have  felt  inclined  to  turn  back,  more 
than  once.  But  1  do  not  think  there  are  better  people  in  the  world 
than  those  who  live  in  Norrland,  which  is  a  Swedish  province 
commencing  about  two  hundred  miles  north  of  Stockholm." 

Note.  —  Observe  that  so  kind,  so  cheerful,  so  honest,  are  arranged  to 
a  flimax.  The  sentences  are  long,  but  well  put  together,  so  there  is  no 
doubt  as  to  what  they  mean. 

The  following  is  an  example  of  strength.  It  is  taken 
from  Emerson's  essay  on  Culture.  Its  strength  lies 
largely  in  its  use  of  particulars  in  place  of  general 
statements.  The  force  of  this  paragraph  cannot  be 
gained  without  an  understanding  of  the  allusions  to 
Napoleon,  Scott,  Wellington,  etc. 

"  I  wish  cities  could  teach  their  best  lesson,  —  of  quiet  manners. 
It  is  the  foible,  especially  of  American  youth,  —  pretension.  The 
mark  of  the  man  of  the  world  is  absence  of  pretension.  He  does  not 
make  a  speech ;  he  takes  a  low  business-tone,  avoids  all  brag,  is 
nobody,  dresses  plainly,  promises  not  at  all,  performs  much,  speaks 
in  monosyllables,  hugs  his  fact.  He  calls  his  employment  by  its 
lowest  name,  and  so  takes  from  evil  tongues  their  sharpest  weapon. 
His  conversation  clings  to  the  weather  and  the  news,  yet  he  allows 
himself  to  be  surprised  into  thought,  and  the  unlocking  of  his 
learning  and  philosophy.  How  the  imagination  is  piqued  by  anec- 
dotes of  some  great  man  passing  incognito,  as  a  king  in  gray  clothes, 
—  of  Napoleon,  affecting  a  plain  suit  at  his  glittering  levee;  of 
Burns,  or  Scott,  or  Beethoven,  or  Wellington,  or  Goethe,^  or  any 
container  of  transcendent  power  passing  for  nobody ;  of  Epami- 
nondas,  '  who  never  says  anything,  but  will  listen,  eternally ';  of 
Goethe,  who  preferred  trifling  subjects  and  common  expressions  m 
intercourse  with  strangers,  and  to  appear  a  little  more  capricious 
than  he  was." 

Harmony  of  style  is  frequently  the  result  of  due 
attention   to   unity,  clearness,  and  strength.     The  fol- 


THE   QUALITIES    OF    STYLE.  121 

lowing  passages  from  Old  Curiosity  Shop,  by  Dickens,  is 
an  excellent  example. 

"She  was  dead.  No  sleep  so  beautiful  and  calm,  so  free  from 
trace  of  pain,  so  fair  to  look  upon.  She  seemed  a  creature  fresh 
from  the  hand  of  God,  and  waiting  for  the  breath  of  life ;  not  one 
"who  had  lived  and  suffered  death.  Her  couch  was  dressed  with 
here  and  there  some  winter-berries  and  green  leaves,  gathered  in  a 
spot  she  had  been  used  to  favor.  '  When  I  die,  put  near  me  some- 
thing that  has  loved  the  light,  and  had  the  sky  above  it  always.' 
These  were  her  words.  She  was  dead.  Dear,  gentle,  patient, 
noble  Nell  was  dead.  Her  little  bird  —  a  poor,  slight  thing  the 
pressure  of  a  finger  would  have  crushed  —  was  stirring  nimbly  in 
its  cage ;  and  the  strong  heart  of  its  child-mistress  was  mute  and 
motionless  forever.  Where  were  the  traces  of  her  early  cares,  her 
sufferings  and  fatigues?  All  gone.  Sorrow  was  dead,  indeed,  in 
her ;  but  peace  and  perfect  happiness  were  born  —  imaged  in  her 
tranquil  beauty  and  profound  repose." 

Note.  —  Here  is  a  pleasing  succession  of  short  and  long  sentences.  The 
second  sentence  compares  death  with  sleep,  and  the  ideas  are  arranged  to 
a  climax.  The  next  is  a  balanced  sentence.  The  fourth  sentence  is  longer 
than  any  that  has  preceded  it,  and  is  pleasant  to  the  ear  on  that  account. 
Observe  that  the  direct  discourse  is  used  to  give  the  last  words  of  the  little 
girl.  She  iv(ts  dead  is  repeated  for  the  sake  of  emphasis.  Dear,  i/entle, 
palient,  noble,  are  arranged  to  a  climax.  The  short  word  is  placed  first, 
and  the  words  gradually  grow  stronger  in  their  meaning,  noble  being  the 
highest.  Observe  t\\a,t  poor  inecede^i  si /(/ht,  and  mute  precedes  inotionless. 
A  comparison  between  the  child  and  her  little  bird  —  one  so  strong  but 
dead;  the  other  so  weak  but  living  — adds  a  touch  of  pathos  to  the  nar- 
rative. The  interrogative  form  of  tlie  sentence  referring  to  the  traces  of 
her  suffering,  adds  to  its  strength.  The  last  sentence  is  balanced.  The  last 
words  —  tranquil  beauty  and  profound  repose  —  have  in  themselves  a 
pleasing  succession  of  sounds.  Observe  that  the  entire  paragraph  is  met- 
rical and  may  be  broken  into  blank  verse. 

EXERCISE    I. 

» 

Class  may  select  paragraphs  from  various  writers  which  shall  illus- 
trate the  characteristics  of  different  styles. 


122  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 


CHAPTER   XIIL 
FLAIM  HISTORICAL   WlilTIJ^G. 

This  is  essentially  a  narrative  style.  In  every  his- 
torical narrative  there  are  digressions  that  are  purely 
descriptive;  often  narration  and  description  are  com- 
bined ;  but  in  the  main  the  style  is  narrative. 

The  order  of  events  in  great  measure  makes  the  plan 
of  the  narrative,  but  it  does  not  destroy  the  necessity 
of  the  writer's  seeing  the  whole  as  a  unit,  and  forming 
and  acting  upon  a  definite  plan. 

Moreover,  this  kind  of  writing  deals  with  particulars, 
not  generals ;  the  concrete,  not  the  abstract.  These 
particulars  follow  a  law  of  succession ;  and  in  un- 
skilled narration  this  succession  is  the  order  of  time. 
But  as  a  writer  becomes  skilful,  the  law  of  cause  and 
effect  comes  in  to  modify  this  order ;  and  particulars 
are  related  not  merely  because  they  occurred  at  such  a 
time,  but  because  they  grew  out  of  preceding  events. 

The  chief  error  to  be  avoided  in  historical  writing  is 
the  failure  to  discriminate  between  essential  and  non- 
essential events. 

The  advantage  resulting  from  practice  in  this  kind 
of  writing  is  twofold.  In  the  first  place  it  trains  the 
mind  to  seize  upon  the  main  events  of  any  historical 
topic,  and  secondly  it  necessitates  condensation  of 
thought  and  expression.  As  a  result  of  this  condensa- 
tion the  quality  of  style  most  desired  here  is  clearness. 
All  else  must  be  subordinated  to  that. 


PLAIN    HISTORICAL    WRITING.  123 


LESSON  LV.  —  HISTOEIOAL   SUBJECTS.  —  AMERICAN 

TOPICS. 

EXERCISE   I.  —  MODEL   FOR   REPRODUCTION. 
THE  BEGINNING   OF  THE  AMERICAN    REVOLUTION. 

Each  of  the  thirteen  original  colonies  — "  the  old 
thirteen,"  as  they  were  often  called — had  something 
peculiar  in  its  history  to  distinguish  it  from  the  rest. 
To  begin  with,  tliey  were  esta])lished  by  different  nations. 
Most  of  them,  it  is  true,  Avere  founded  by  Englishmen ; 
but  New  York  and  New  Jersey  were  settled  by  the 
Dutch  and  Delaware  by  the  SAA^edes,  while  the  Caro- 
linas  were  first  explored  and  named  by  a  French  colony. 
Most  of  them  were  founded  by  small  parties  of  settlers, 
among  whom  no  great  distinctions  of  rank  existed. 
Two  of  them,  Pennsjdvania  and  Maryland,  were  founded 
by  a  single  proprietor  in  each  case,  who  owned  the  whole 
soil.  New  York  had  its  "  patroons,"  or  large  landhold- 
ers with  tenants  under  them.  Some  of  the  colonies 
had  charter  governments  ;  some  had  royal  governments 
without  charters  ;  and  others  Avere  governed  b}^  the 
original  pi'oprietors,  or  those  Avho  represented  them. 

But  lioweA'er  differently  the  thirteen  colonies  may 
have  been  founded  or  governed,  they  Avere  all  alike  in 
some  things.  For  instance,  they  all  had  something  of 
local  self-government;  that  is,  each  community,  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  made  and  administered  its  OAvn 
laAvs.  Moreover,  they  all  became  subject  to  Great 
Britain  at  last ;  and,  finally,  they  all  groAV  discontented 
AA'ith  the  I>ritish  government  because  thej^  thought  them- 
selves ill-treated.     This  discontent  made  them  at  last 


124  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

separate  themselves  from  England  and  form  a  complete 
union  with  one  another.  liut  this  was  not  accomplished 
without  a  war,  —  the  war  commonly  called  the  Amer- 
ican Revolution. 

We  are  very  apt  to  suppose  that  the  colonies  deliber- 
ately came  together  and  resolved  to  throw  off  the  yoke 
of  Great  Britain.  But  this  was  not  the  case  at  all. 
Even  after  they  had  raised  armies  and  begun  to  fight, 
the  Continental  Congress  said,  "  We  have  not  raised 
armies  with  the  ambitious  design  of  separating  from 
Great  Britain  and  establishing  independent  states." 
They  would  have  been  perfectly  satisfied  to  go  on  as 
they  were  if  the  British  government  had  only  treated 
them  in  a  manner  which  they  thouglit  just ;  that  is,  if 
Great  Britain  either  had  not  taxed  them,  or  had  let 
them  send  representatives  to  Parliament  in  return  for 
paying  taxes.  But  this  was  not  allowed  ;  and  so  when 
the  famous  "  Stamp  Act "  was  passed  in  17G5,  the 
popular  indignation  was  very  great. 

There  was  nothing  very  bad  about  this  law  in  itself, 
and  Englishmen  would  not  have  complained  of  it  at 
home.  It  was  such  a  law  as  had  always  existed  in 
England,  and,  indeed,  taxes  have  since  been  imposed  in 
a  similar  way  in  America.  The  colonists  objected  to  it 
only  because  it  involved  a  principle.  No  matter  how 
trifling  the  tax  might  be,  they  objected  to  it.  "No 
taxation  without  representation"  was  a  phrase  con- 
stantly heard  in  the  colonies  in  those  days ;  and  the 
excitement  about  the  Stamp  Act  was  the  real  beginning 
of  the  Revolutionary  War. 

The  first  sign  of  opposition  was  given  in  Virginia. 
In  the  Virginia  Assembly,  in  May,  1765,  a  young 
lawyer  named  Patrick  Henry  offered  resolutions  declar- 


PLAIN   HISTORICAL    WRITING.  125 

ing-  that  no  power  but  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
colony  had  the  right  to  levy  taxes  upon  it,  and  that  to 
allow  such  right  to  any  other  body  was  to  destroy  all 
freedom.  These  resolutions  were  adopted  by  a  small 
majority.  Thus  Virginia  gave  the  signal  of  resistance 
for  the  colonies.  —  TJiomas  Wentivorth  Higginson. 

Note.  —  In  the  beginning  of  this  chapter  it  was  stated  that  the 
chief  requisite  of  historical  writing  was  clearness.  Xotice  that 
characteristic  in  the  above  extract,  which  is  somewhat  condensed 
from  the  original.  Though  brief,  it  gives  first  a  comprehensive 
view  of  the  foundation  and  government  of  tlie  colonies  ;  then  a 
clear  idea  of  the 'state  of  feeling  which  culminated  in  the  Revo- 
lution ;  and  the  reasons  for  discontent ;  and  finally  the  several 
measures  which  resulted  in  the  united  action  of  the  colonies  against 
Great  Britain. 


LESSON  LVL  — OUTLINES   OF  SUBJECTS  ON  AMEEIOAN 

TOPICS. 

The  Discovery  of  America. 

The  coming  of  the  Vikings ;  Columbus's  long  struggle  to  con- 
vince the  kings  of  Europe  that  there  was  land  across  the  ocean ; 
popular  views  respecting  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ;  his  success  in  con- 
vincing Isabella.  Relate  the  circumstances  of  Columbus's  starting. 
Describe  the  voyage  —  the  log  books  —  dissatisfaction  of  crew  — 
indications  of  land  —  discovery  of  land.     Name  of  land  discovered 

—  date  of  discovery  —  erroneous  views  concerning  it. 

The  Pilgrims. 

Their  origin  —  emigration  to  Holland  —  desire  to  come  to 
America  —  circumstances   of   their   departure  —  voyage  —  landing 

—  settlement  at  Plymouth — privations,  disease,  and  hardships  of 
that  first  winter.     Famous  men  of  the  colony. 


126  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMrOSITION. 

The  Settlement  of  Pennsylvania. 

Origin  of  name.  Brief  sketch  of  William  Penn  — how  he  came 
into  possession  of  the  country  —  effect  of  Penn's  character  and 
religious  views  upon  the  settlement  of  Pennsylvania.  How  and 
when  settled  —  incidents  and  anecdotes  —  reasons  for  rapid  growth 
in  population  and  wealth  (free  government,  liberty  of  religious 
faith,  friendly  relations  with  the  Indians) — length  of  time  Penn- 
sylvania remained  in  the  Penn  family. 

Life  in  Colonial  Times. 

Kind  of  houses,  how  built  —  furniture,  where  obtained  —  kinds 
of  food,  ways  of  cooking  it.  Modes  of  travel  —  education  —  found- 
ing of  Harvard  College  —  of  Yale  College.  Occupations  of  the 
peojile  —  amusements  —  bond-servants  —  slaves.  Laws  and  cus- 
toms —  peculiar  punishments  —  superstitions  —  religious  perse- 
cutions. MciNIaster's  Historij  of  the  People  of  the  United  States, 
Vol.  I.,  Chap.  I.,  gives  an  excellent  picture  of  Social  Life  in  the 
Colonies. 

Expulsion  of  the  Acadians. 

Acadia  included  what  is  now  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick. 
Settled  by  French  peasants  about  1.500.  Wrested  from  the  French 
by  the  English  in  1610.  Inhabitants  remained  French  in  language 
and  sympathies  for  fifty  years  afterward.  English  feared  a  French 
alliance  —  despotic  measures  to  prevent  this.  Read  the  historical 
account  of  the  expulsion  of  the  Acadians,  then  read  Longfellow's 
Eranfjeline,  and  give  a  clear  and  graphic  account  of  this  tragic 
episode. 

The  Capture  of  Quebec. 

Who  was  General  Wolfe ?  Who  was  the  French  commander? 
Describe  situation  of  Quebec  —  the  several  attacks  and  defeats  — 
season  of  storms  —  sickness  in  army.  Heights  of  Abraham  finally 
scaled  —  battle  fought  and  won.  Both  commanders  mortally 
wounded.  Effect  of  the  capitulation  of  Quebec  upon  French  and 
English  claims. 


PLAIN    HISTORICAL    WRITING.  127 

Outbreak  of  the  Revolution. 

Give  a  brief  review  of  tlie  events  which  led  to  the  battles  of 
Lexington  and  Concord,  e.g.  tyrannical  governors,  objectionable 
navigation  laws,  internal  revenue  restrictions,  search  warrants, 
Stamp  Act,  and  consequent  troubles.  "  Tea  party  "  at  Boston  — 
Congress  of  1774  —  military  stores  gathered  by  colonists  —  battle 
of  Lexington  and  opening  of  wai'fare. 

Bcattle  of  Bull  Run. 

First  important  battle  in  the  Civil  War.  Give  brief  description 
of  battle-ground.  Object  of  the  battle  (to  take  Richmond).  Ex- 
pected results  (end  of  war).  Name  commanders  on  both  sides, 
relative  number  of  troops  on  both  sides,  etc.  Reasons  for  the  de- 
feat —  the  retreat  —  loss  of  life  —  incidents  of  battle.  Effect  on 
the  South  —  on  the  North. 

Battle  of  Gettysburg. 

In  what  caraiiaign  fought?  Object  of  the  campaign.  Name 
some  of  the  engagements  which  preceded  this  battle  —  their  results. 
Commanders  in  Confederate  army  —  succession  of  conmianders  in 
Federal  army.  Wliich  array  had  been  n)ost  successful  up  to  this 
time?  Result  of  this  battle  looked  for  with  fear  and  anxiety  on 
both  sides.     Where,  when,  and  how  fought.     Incidents  of  battle 

—  courage  displayed  on  both  sides.     Retreat  of  Lee. 

Note.  —  If  any  one  lias  been  so  fortunate  as  to  have  seen  the  cyclorama 
of  tliis  or  any  other  battle,  he  might  give  a  description  as  an  eye-witness, 
v.-riting  in  the  present  tense  and  making  a  vivid  word-picture'. 

Discovery  of  Gold  in  California. 

Existence  of  gold  known  for  many  years  to  the  Spanish  priests 

—  also  to  the  Mormons  —  Mexicans  —  Indians.  Effect  of  chance 
discovery  of  gold  at  Sutter's  Mill  on  the  Sacramento  in  1848.  Rush 
of  gold  seekers  in  184!)  —  perils  encountered  in  crossing  the  isth- 
mus—  enormous  prices  of  food  and  clothing.  Character  of  first 
gold  found  —  primitive  methods  of  mining  —  picsont  methods  of 


128  STUDIES    IN    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

PICTURESQUE  HISTORICAL    W^RITIJVG. 

Ill  all  historical  writing  there  is  in  the  very  hody  of 
the  composition  something  which,  for  lack  of  a  l)etter 
name,  we  may  call  the  movement  of  the  Narrative. 
If  a  long  period  of  time  is  covered  l)y  a  very  brief 
narration,  we  say  that  tlie  movement  is  rapid.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  a  minnte  account  is  given  of  all  the 
details  of  an  action,  the  movement  is  slow. 

The  movement  of  an  historical  narrative  should,  in 
the  main,  be  even  and  regular;  but  it  often  happens  in 
real  life  that  the  calm  succession  of  events  is  inter- 
rupted by  some  startling  occurrence,  or  by  the  appear- 
ance of  some  marked  and  powerful  person ;  and  in 
order  that  the  historian  may  give  to  his  readers  a  cor- 
rect idea  of  the  relative  value  of  events,  it  is  often 
necessary  to  interrupt  the  even  course  of  the  narration, 
to  cliange  the  movement,  and  direct  as  much  attention 
to  the  pro'ceedings  of  a  few  hours  or  days  as  has  before 
been  given  to  years. 

When  this  is  done,  the  writer  strives  to  bring  before 
his  readers  as  vivid  a  picture  of  the  event,  or  the  per- 
son, or  the  condition,  as  can  be  done  with  words.  Such 
descriptions  or  narrations  we  call  picturesque.  No  his- 
tory should  be  written  in  tliis  style  alone ;  no  good 
history  is  without  examples  of  it. 


PICTURESQUE    HISTORICAL    WRITING.  129 

LESSON  LVII.  —  HISTORICAL  SUBJECTS. 

EXERCISE    I.  —  MODEL    FOR    STUDY. 
THE  TRIAL  OF  WARREN    HASTINGS. 

The  Hip-h  Court  of  Parliament  was'  to  sit,  accordiiifr 
to  forms  handed  down  from  the  days  of  the  Phmta- 
genets,  on  an  Englishman  accused  of  exercising  tyranny 
over  the  lord  of  the  holy  city  of  Benares,  and  over  the 
ladies  of  the  princely  house  of  Oude. 

The  place  was  worthy  of  such  a  trial.  It  was  the 
great  hall  of  William  Rufus ;  the  hall  which  had  re- 
sounded with  acclamations  at  the  inauguration  of  thirty 
kings ;  the  hall  which  had  witnessed  the  just  sentence 
of  Bacon ;  the  just  absolution  of  Somers ;  the  liall 
where  Charles  had  confronted  the  higli  court  of  justice 
with  the  placid  courage  which  half  redeemed  his  fame. 
Neither  military  nor  civil  pomp  was  wanting.  The 
avenues  were  lined  with  grenadiers.  The  streets  were 
kept  clear  by  cavalry.  Tlie  peers,  robed  in  gold  and 
ermine,  were  marshalled  by  the  heralds  under  Garter 
king-at-arms.  The  judges,  in  their  vestments  of  state, 
attended,  to  give  advice  on  points  of  law.  Near  a  Iniu- 
dred  and  seventy  lords  —  three-fourths  of  the  upper 
house  —  walked  in  solemn  order  from  their  usual  place 
of  assembling  to  the  tribunal.  The  junior  l)aron  present 
led  the  way,  and  the  long  procession  was  closed  by 
the  bi'otliers  and  sons  of  the  king.  The  gray  old  ^^■alls 
were  hunsf  witli  scarlet.  Tlie  lonof  o-alleries  were 
crowded  by  an  audience  such  as  has  rarely  excited 
the  fears  or  the  emulations  of  an  orator.  There  were 
gathered  togetlier,  from  all  parts  of  a  great,  free,  en- 
lightened,   and    prosperous    empire,   grace    and    female 


130  STUDIES    IN    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION". 

loveliness,  Avit  and  leai-nino-,  the  representatives  of  every 
science  and  every  ait.  .  .  . 

The  Serjeants  made  proclamation.  Hastings  advanced 
to  the  bar,  and  bent  the  knee.  The  culprit  was  indeed 
not  unworthy  of  that  great  presence.  He  had  ruled 
an  extensive  and  populous  country,  had  made  laws  and 
treaties,  had  sent  forth  armies,  liad  set  up  and  pulled 
down  princes.  And  in  his  high  place  he  had  so  borne 
himself,  that  all  had  feared  him,  that  most  had  loved 
liim,  and  tliat  liatred  itself  could  deny  liim  no  title  to 
glory,  except  virtue.  He  looked  like  a  great  man,  and 
not  like  a  bad  man.  A  jDcrson  small  and  emaciated, 
yet  deriving  dignity  from  a  carriage  which,  while  it 
indicated  deference  to  the  court,  indicated  also  habitual 
self-possession  and  self-respect ;  a  high  and  intellectual 
forehead ;  a  brow  pensive  but  not  gloomy  ;  a  mouth  of 
inflexible  decision ;  a  face  pale  and  worn,  but  serene. 
Such  was  the  aspect  with  which  the  great  Proconsul 
presented  himself  to  the  judges. 

Neither  the  culprit  nor  his  advocates  attracted  so 
much  notice  as  the  accusers.  In  the  midst  of  the  blaze 
of  red  drapery,  a  space  had  l)een  fitted  up  with  green 
benches  and  tables  for  the  Commons.  The  managers, 
with  Burke  at  their  head,  appeared  in  full  dress.  Even 
Fox,  generally  so  regardless  of  his  appearance,  paid  to 
the  illustrious  tribunal  the  compliment  of  wearing  a 
basf  and  sword.  Pitt  had  refused  to  be  one  of  the 
conductors  of  the  impeachment,  and  his  commanding 
eloquence  was  wanting  to  that  great  muster  of  various 
talents.  —  Macaulay. 

Note.  —  The  foregoing  selection  is  from  an  essay  upon  Warren 
Hastings,  published  in  the  Edinlmrgh  Reinew,  October,  1841.  Until 
this  point  the  movement  of  the  historical  narrative  has  been  very 


PICTURESQUE   HISTORICAL    WRITING.  131 

rapid,  but  here  it  has  been  cliecked,  and  tlie  power  of  the  writer 
and  the  attention  of  tlie  reader  are  directed  to  a  picture  of  the 
opening  scene  of  the  trial.  Note  the  form  and  structure  of  the 
sentences  ;  the  various  alkisions ;  the  clearness  of  style.  Observe 
the  description  of  Hastings's  personal  appearance  and  the  added 
strength  which  it  gives  to  the  picture. 

LIST  OF   SUBJECTS   FOR   PICTURESQUE   NARRATIONS. 

Pupils  are  recommended  to  consult  the  books  named  under  the 

topics. 

The  Destruction  of  Pompeii. 

Letters  of  the  Younger  Pliny  in  Pompeii,  by  Thomas  H.  Dyer, 
Part  I.,  Chap.  IT.  ;  closing  chapters  of  Ld^t  Da/js  of  Pompeii,  by 
Bulwer-Lytton  ;  The  Degtruclion  of  HercuUvieutn,  by  Lord  ^Licaulay. 

The  Assassination  of  Abraham  Lincohi. 

Life  and  Public  Services  of  Abraliam  Lincohi,  by  Henry  J.  Ray- 
mond; Abraham  Lincoln:  a  History,  by  Nicolay  and  Hay,  Vol.  X. 

The  Trial  of  Socrates. 

The  Apolo(jij  in  Dialogues  of  Pluto,  translated  by  B.  Jowett. 

The  Battle  of  Marathon. 

Fifteen  Decisive  Battles  of  the  World,  ]>y  E.  S.  Creasy. 

The  Signing  of  Magna  Charta. 

Time,  June  L5,  1215.  Picture  the  beauties  of  the  English  sum- 
mer—  refer  to  the  famous  yew  tree  still  standing  on  the  banks  of 
the  Thames  —  Runnymede  —  council  meadow — used  by  Saxons 
long  years  before.  John  came  down  from  Windsor  —  Barons  from 
London.  ^Meeting  —  signing  of  Charter  —  provisions  of  Charter  — 
effect  upon  the  liberties  of  England. 

History  of  the  Encjlish  People,  by  John  U.  Green,  Book  HI., 
Chap.  L 

Luther  at  the  Diet  of  Worms. 

Life  of  Martin  Luther,  by  Peter  Bayne,  Vol.  H.,  Book  IX.,  Cliaps. 
IV.  and  V. 


132  STUDIES    IN    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

The  Siege  of  Leyden. 

Rise  of  (he  Dutch  Republic,  by  John  L.  Motley,  Vol.  II.,  Part 
IV.,  Chap.  11. 

The  Night  March  to  Schouwen. 

Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,  by  John  L.  Motley,  Vol.  III.,  Part 
IV.,  Chap.  III. 

The  Discovery  of  America. 

Life  and  Voi/aycs  if  Columbus,  by  AVashington  Irving,  Book  III. 

Tlie  Landing  of  the  Pilgrims. 

History  of  the    United   States  of  America,  by  George  Bancroft, 
Vol.  I.,  Chap.  VIII. 


LESSON   LVIII.  —  PIOTUEESQUE   EirEOT   BT  CONTRAST. 

EXERCISE    I.  —  MODEL   FOE,    STUDY. 
TWO    SCENES    IN    THE    LIFE   OF    MARIE  ANTOINETTE. 

On  Monday,  the  14th  of  October,  1793,  a  cause  is 
pending-  in  the  Palace  of  Justice,  in  the  new  Revolu- 
tionary Court,  such  as  those  old  stone  Avails  never 
witnessed,  —  the  trial  of  INlarie  Antoinette.  The  once 
brightest  of  queens,  now  tarnished,  defaced,  forsaken, 
stands  here  at  Fouquier-Tinville's  Judgment-bar,  an- 
swerino-  for  her  life.  The  indictment  was  delivered  her 
last  night.  To  such  changes  of  human  fortune  what 
words  are  adequate  ?     Silence  alone  is  adequate. 

Marie  Antoinette,  in  this  her  abandonment  and  hour 
of  extreme  need,  is  not  wanting  to  herself,  the  imperial 
woman.     Her  look,  they  say,  as  that  hideous  indictment 


PICTURESQUE   HISTOEICAL   WHITING.  133 

was  reading,  continued  calm.  "  She  was  sometimes 
observed  moving  her  fingers,  as  when  one  plays  on  the 
piano."  You  discern,  not  without  interest,  across  that 
dim  Revolutionary  Bulletin  itself,  how  she  bears  her- 
self queen-like.  Her  answers  are  prompt,  clear,  often 
of  laconic  brevity;  resolution  which  has  grown  con- 
temptuous without  ceasing  to  be  dignified,  veils  itself 
in  calm  words.  "  You  persist,  then,  in  denial ? "  "My 
plan  is  not  denial :  it  is  the  truth  I  have  said,  and  I 
persist  in  that." 

At  four  o'clock  on  Wednesday  morning,  after  two 
days  and  two'  nights  of  interrogating,  jury-charging, 
and  other  darkening  of  counsel,  the  result  comes  out,  — 
sentence  of  Death  !  "  Have  you  anything  to  say  ?  "  The 
accused  shook  her  head,  Avithout  speech.  Night's  can- 
dles are  burning  out ;  and  with  her,  too.  Time  is  finish- 
ing, and  it  will  be  Eternity  and  Day.  This  hall  of 
Tinville's  is  dark,  ill-lighted  except  where  she  stands. 
Silently  she  witlidraws  from  it,  to  die. 

Two  processions  or  Royal  Progresses,  three  and 
twenty  years  apart,  have  often  struck  us  with  a  strange 
feeling  of  contrast.  The  first  is  of  a  beautiful  arch- 
duchess and  dauphiness,  (][uitting  her  mother's  city,  at 
the  age  of  fifteen,  towards  hoi)es.  such  as  no  other 
daughter  of  Eve  then  had.  "  On  the  morrow,"  says 
Weber,  an  eye-witness,  "the  daupliiness  left  Vienna. 
The  whole  city  crowded  out,  at  first  with  a  sorrow 
which  Avas  silent.  She  appeared ;  you  saw  her  sunk 
back  into  her  carriage,  her  face  bathed  in  tears ;  several 
times  putting  out  her  head  to  see  again  the  palace  of 
her  fathers,  whither  she  was  to  return  no  more.  She 
motioned  her  regret,  her  gratitude,  to  the  good  nation 
which  was  crowding  to  bid  her  farewell.     Tlicn  arose 


134  STUDIES    IN    ENtiLlSJl    COMi'OSlTlON. 

not  only  tears,  but  piercing  cries,  on  all  sides.  It  was 
an  audible  sound  of  wail  iu  the  streets  and  avenues  of 
Vienna.  The  last  courier  that  followed  her  disappeared, 
and  the  crowd  melted  away." 

The  young  imperial  maiden  of  fifteen  has  now  become 
a  worn,  discrowned  widow  of  thirty-eight,  gray  before 
her  time.      This  is  the  last  procession.      Few  minutes 
after  the  trial  ended,  the  drums  were  beating  to  arms 
in  all  sections ;  at  sunrise  the  armed  force  was  on  foot, 
cannons  getting  placed  at  the  extremities  of  the  bridges, 
in  the  squares,  cross  ways,  all  along  from  the  Palace  of 
Justice  to  the  Place  of  Revolution.     By  ten   o'clock, 
numerous    patrols    were    circulating    in    the    streets,  — 
thirty  thousand  foot  and  horse  drawn  up  under  arms. 
At   eleven,   Marie  Antoinette  was   brought   out.     She 
had  on  an  undress  of  white  pique ;  she  was  led  to  the 
place  of  execution  in  the  same  manner  as  an  ordinary 
criminal ;  bound  on  a  cart,  accompanied  by  a  constitu- 
tional  priest   in  lay  dress,   escorted   by  numerous  de- 
tacliments   of   infantry   and   cavalry.      These   and   the 
double  row  of  troops  all  along  her  road,  she  appeared  to 
regard  with  imlifference.     On  her    countenance    there 
was  visible  neither  abashment  nor  pride.     To  the  cries 
of  "  Live  the  Republic  !  "  and  "  Down  with  tyranny  !  " 
which  attended  her  all  the  way,  she  seemed  to  pay  no 
heed.     She  spoke  little  to  her  confessor.     The  tricolor 
streamers  on  the  house-tops  occupied  her  attention  in 
the  Streets   du  Roule  and  Saint-Honore ;  she  also  no- 
ticed the  inscriptions   on  the  house-fronts.     On  reach- 
ino-  tlie  Place  of  Revolution,  her  looks  turned  toward 
the  Tuileries  ;  her  face  at  that  moment  gave  signs  of 
lively  emotion.     She  mounted  the  scaffold  with  courage 


PICTURESQUE    HISTORICAL   WRITING.  135 

enough;  at  a  quarter  past  twelve  lier  liead  fell;  the 
executioner  showed  it  to  the  people,  amid  universal 
long-continued  cries  of  "  Live  the  Republic  !  " 

Eroni  The  French  Revolution,  by  Thomas  Carlyle. 

LIST  OF  SUBJECTS  FOR  SIMILAR  TREATMENT. 

America  — in  1492  and  1892. 

Two  Scenes  in  the  Life  of  Anne  Boleyn. 

Coronation  and  Execution. 

Joan  of  Arc. 

A  simple  peasant  girl  in  Domremy. 

At  the  head  of  the  armies  of  France. 

At  the  stake  in  the  market-place  of  Rouen. 

Queen  Victoria. 

At  her  accession  to  the  throne,  — 1837. 
The  Jubilee  Year,  — 1887. 

Ulysses  S.  Grant. 

In  his  father's  employ  at  Galena. 

At  the  head  of  the  victorious  Northern  army. 

Abraham  Lincoln. 

A  boatman  on  the  Mississippi. 
A  lawyer  at  Springfield,  111. 
The  President  in  Washington. 

William  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Crown  Prince  of  Prussia,  flying  from  Berlin. 

King  of  Prussia,  struggling  with  Austria. 

Proclaimed  Emperor  of  Germany,  in  the  palace  of  Versailles. 

Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

A  boy  in  the  military  school  of  Brieune. 
As  Emperor  of  tlie  French. 
.\  prisoner  at  St.  Helena. 


136  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMrOSITION. 

LESSON  LIX.  -  PIGTUEESQUE   EFEEOT   BY  SUGaESTION. 

EXERCISE   I.  —  MODEL   FOR    STUDY. 
THE    EXECUTION    OF   SIDNEY   CARTON. 

She  kisses  his  lijjs,  he  kisses  hers,  they  solemnly  bless 
each  other.  Tlie  spare  hand  does  not  tremble  as  he  re- 
leases it,  nothing  worse  than  a  sweet,  bright  constancy 
is  in  the  patient  face.  She  goes  next  before  him,  —  is 
gone, — the  knitting  women  count  Twenty-two. 

"/am  the  Resurreetio7i  and  the  Life,  saith  the  Lord;  he 
that  belteveth  in  me,  though  he  tvere  dead,  yet  shall  he  live; 
and  ivhosoever  liveth  and  believeth  in  me  shall  never  die.''^ 

The  murmuring  of  many  voices,  the  upturning  of 
many  faces,  the  pressing-on  of  many  footsteps  in  the 
outskirts  of  the  crowd,  so  that  it  swells  forward  in  a 
mass  like  one  great  heave  of  water,  all  flashes  away; 
Twenty-three. 

They  said  of  him  about  the  city  that  night,  that  it  was 
the  peacefullest  man's  face  ever  beheld  there.  Many 
added  that  he  looked  sublime  and  prophetic. 

Charles  Dickens. 

Note.  —  This  example  is  from  Dickens's  Tale  of  Tivo  Cities. 
Tlie  scene  is  laid  in  Paris,  at  the  time  of  the  Terror.  It  is  a  fact 
that  groups  of  women,  who  brought  their  knitting  with  them,  sat 
about  the  foot  of  the  guillotine  and  counted  the  number  of  the 
victims. 

Dickens  has  utilized  this  well-known  fact  in  order  to  suggest  the 
picture  of  the  execution  without  describing  it.  The  words  Twenty- 
two  and  Twenty-three  tell  the  story  completely  —  no  further  words 
are  needed  —  the  imagination  of  the  reader  can  be  relied  upon  to 
fill  in  all  details. 

The  introduction  of  the  beginning  of  the  Burial  Service  is 
perhaps  the  only  thing  that  could  add  to  the  impressive  character 
of  the  description. 


PICTURESQUE    HISTORICAL   WRITING.  137 

LIST  OF  SUBJECTS  FOR  SIMILAR   TREATMENT. 

Execution  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots. 

Limit  the  time  to  the  morning  of  the  execution.  Give  the  climax 
by  suggestion  only.  A  pathetic  ending  may  be  made  by  relating 
the  incident  of  her  little  dog,  found  under  her  skirts  after  she  was 
dead.  Her  famous  Latin  prayer,  said  to  have  been  composed  in  the 
gray  of  the  morning  of  her  execution,  may  be  used  with  effect :  — 

"  O  Domino  deus,  speravi  in  te, 
O  care  mi  Jesu,  nunc  libera  me. 
lu  dura  catena,  in  niisera  poena, 
Desidero  te. 

Gemeudo,  lugendo,  et  genu  Hecteudo, 
Adpro,  imploro  ut  liberes  me." 

Leonidas  at  Thermopylae. 

Limit  the  scene  from  the  time  the  Persians  came  up  in  the  rear 
and  discovered  the  Spartans  combing  their  long  yellow  haii',  —  to 
the  end  of  the  battle.  Its  result  may  be  indicated  by  the  fate  of 
the  one  deserter  who  escaped  to  tell  the  news.  Quote  the  lines 
of  Simonides  upon  the  tomb  of  the  heroes  :  — 

"Go,  stranger,  and  to  Lacedemon  tell 
That  here  obedient  to  her  laws  we  fell." 

General  Wolfe  at  Quebec. 

Limit  the  time  to  the  events  of  a  single  day.  Picture  the  boats 
gliding  down  to  the  landing  in  the  darkness  —  the  hasty  climb  up 
the  rocky  heights  —  the  quick  defeat  of  the  picket-guard — the  posi- 
tion on  the  Plains  of  Abraham  —  the  battle  —  its  result. 

To  indicate  Wolfe's  fate,  use  the  well-known  incident  of  his 
quoting  from  the  Elegy  loritlen  in  a  Country  Church-yard :  — 

"  The  boast  of  heraldry,  the  pomp  of  power, 

And  all  that  beauty,  all  that  wealth  e'er  gave, 
Await  alike  the  inevitable  hour  : 
The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave."  — 

followed  by  reference  to  the  monument  raised  to  the  memory  of 
Wolfe  and  Montcalm,  bearing  the  following  inscription  :  — 

MORTEM     -     VIRTUS     ■     COMMUNEM 

FAMAM     ■      HISTORIA 
MONUMENTUM     ■      POSTERITAS 
DEDIT. 


138  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 


CHAPTER   XV. 

STUDIES  IJV  SHORT  STORIES  FOR  CHILDREN. 

So  many  short  stories  are  now  written  that  it  seems 
better  to  suggest  some  that  should  be  read,  rather  than 
attempt  to  give  any  as  examples.  In  St.  N'icJiolas,  Wide 
Awake,  and  The  Youth'' s  Compmiion  can  be  found  excel- 
lent models  in  great  variety. 

The  Story  of  a  Short  Life  and  Jackanapes  by  Mrs. 
Juliana  Horatia  Ewing,  The  Story  of  Patsy  and  The 
Birds'  Christmas  Carol  by  Kate  Douglas  Wiggin,  and 
Wee  Willie  Winkie  by  Rudyard  Kipling,  are  stories 
almost  perfect  of  their  kind. 

The  charm  of  many  short  stories  lies  not  so  much  in 
the  incident  upon  which  they  are  based  as  upon  the  way 
they  are  told.  The  power  of  telling  things  pleasantly 
can  be  attained:  it  comes  with  practice,  based  upon  a 
careful  study  of  models,  and  is  within  the  reach  of  any 
one  who  really  and  intelligently  tries  to  acquire  it. 

Tlie  tendency  of  inexperienced  writers  to  use  the 
third  person  instead  of  the  first,  to  tell  what  the  char- 
acters say,  rather  than  allow  them  to  say  it  themselves, 
should  be  carefully  avoided.  Keep  to  the  direct  dis- 
course as  much  as  possible  ;  care  in  this  particular 
alone  will  often  give  life  and  spirit  to  an  otherwise 
dull  story. 

In  the  following  lesson  full  outlines  of  three  stories 
are  given  for  trial  practice  in  tliis  kind  of  writing. 


STUDIES   IN    SHORT    STORIES.  139 

LESSON    LX.  —  OUTLINES    OF    STOEIES. 

Adrift. 

Little  girl  —  Mary  —  lived  on  canal  boat  with  father,  mother, 
and  baby  brother.  Describe  a  canal  boat  —  size,  shape,  cabins,  etc. 
Mode  of  life  on  a  canal  boat  —  modes  of  locomotion.  This  canal 
boat  travelled  from  Buffalo  along  Erie  Canal  and  Hudson  River 
to  New  York  during  the  summer  months  —  laid  up  in  winter  at 
Jersey  City,  where  IMary,  with  other  little  boat-dwellers,  went 
to  school.  Once,  when  in  tow  with  twenty  other  boats  on  the 
river,  the  Betsey  Jane  happened  to  be  last  in  line.  The  families 
on  the  different  boats  used  to  visit  back  and  forth.  One  night 
when  her  father  and  mother  are  away,  and  Mary  is  alone,  absorbed 
in  a  book,  the  tow-line  breaks,  and  before  she  realizes  what 
has  happened,  she  finds  herself  adrift  on  the  Betsey  Jane.  The 
boat  may  drift  ashore  and  sink,  or  may  be  run  down  by  a  steam- 
boat—  she  tries  to  steer  the  boat  —  wind  is  ahead  —  rigs  a  mutton- 
leg  sail  (find  out  and  describe)  with  a  sheet,  some  rope,  and  a 
boat-hook  —  keeps  from  drifting  ashore  and  makes  good  time 
down  the  river.  Picture  consternation  of  father  and  mother  — 
search  —  finally,  delight  of  all  to  see  the  Betsey  Jane  sail  into 
the  little  bay  at  Peekskill,  where  all  had  anchored  to  wait  and 
to  search. 

The  Runaway  Train. 

Jake  Handy,  the  engineer  on  the  night  freight,  lives  at  Browns- 
ville, where  his  train  lays  by  for  the  passenger-train  every  night 
for  two  hours,  giving  him  time  to  go  home  and  get  a  hot  supper. 
He  leaves  the  "  Nestor,"  his  engine,  in  charge  of  his  fifteen-year- 
old  son  Dave.  Dave  has  often  ridden  with  his  father  and  he 
knows  the  engine  well  —  knows  how  to  start,  slow  up,  reverse, 
stop,  etc. 

One  night,  after  his  father  had  gone  as  usual,  a  terrific  wind- 
storm comes  up.  Dave  is  getting  very  nervous  and  frightened, 
when  he  sees  rush  by  on  the  main  line  a  runaway  train  of  heavily 
loaded  cars,  going  down  grade.  Tt  flashes  across  Dave's  mind 
that  the  passenger  express  is  soon  due,  coming  up  the  same  track. 
The  thought   of  the   terrible   disaster  imminent,  nerves   him   to 


140  STUDIES    IN    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

supreme  el't'ort.  He  uncouples  the  "  Nestor,"  puts  on  full  steam, 
and  starts  after  tlu;  runaway.  At  length  lie  overtakes  it,  and 
returns,  barely  reaching  the  side  track  when  the  express  dashes 
past. 

Describe  Dave  and  how  he  watches  the  engine  —  describe  the 
storm  and  his  nervous  fears.  Narrate  the  ti-ausition  of  feeling 
from  fear  for  self  on  account  of  storm,  to  fear  for  others  on 
account  of  collision.  Narrate  incidents  of  the  chase  —  of  finally 
getting  in  sight  of  the  train — of  extreme  difficulty  in  coupling  — 
of  stopping  speed  of  heavy  train  —  of  final  success  in  reversing  — 
of  frantic  terror  on  hearing  the  express  in  the  distance,  —  return, 
etc.  "  The  true  hero  is  he  who  realizes  a  danger  and  yet  faces  it 
bravely." 

How  the  Cat  cauglit  a  Mouse. 

Told  by  herself  and  adapted  for  children  about  seven  years  of 
age.  Heard  her  Mistress  say  that  the  mice  did  a  great  deal  of 
harm  —  decided  to  heljJ  all  that  she  could — waited  until  after 
dark  —  hid  —  heard  the  little  mouse's  teeth  making  a  hole  through 
the  floor  —  saw  its  little  head  come  through  —  then  its  body  —  it 
looks  about  —  sees  no  one  —  conies  out  —  cat  gives  one  great  leap 
and  catches  it  —  it  cries  —  cat  plays  with  it  —  tosses  it  up  —  once 
—  twice  —  third  time  it  falls  very  near  the  hole  —  before  cat  can 
catch  it,  is  gone. 

The  Mouse's  Story  of  the  Same  Adventure. 

Story  of  the  Violets  that  went  to  Sleep  under  the 
Oak-Tree. 

Picture  their  spring,  summer,  and  autumn  life. 

A  City  without  a  Name. 

A  field  full  of  spider  webs,  as  is  often  seen  in  the  country  in  mid- 
summer —  its  inhabitants  —  their  occupations,  etc. 

The  Little  Old  Man  of  the  Forest. 

There  are  among  the  German  Folk-lore  stories  many  different 
ones  based  upon  the  belief  that  there  once  lived  in  the  forest,  a 


STUDIES   IN    SHORT    STOKIES.  141 

little  old  man,  who  frequently  appeared  to  passers-by,  and  tested 
their  unselfishness.  They  were  always  asked  to  sacrifice  something 
for  others  ;  if  they  followed  their  better  natures  and  gave  up  some- 
thing for  others,  they  came  out  best  in  the  end ;  if  they  did  not, 
they  were  in  some  waj'  punished.  Ruskin's  King  of  the  Golden 
River  is  only  another  version  of  the  old  story.  Tell  the  tale  witli 
any  characters  and  incidents  you  may  prefer. 

The  Wedding  of  Gold  Pen  and  Inkstand. 

Describe  the  wedding  on  the  library  table  —  name  the  guests. 
After  the  ceremony  the  guests  offer  congratulations.  See  that 
each  guest  has  an  appropriate  sentiment  to  oifer  to  the  newly 
wedded  pair.  -For  example,  "  May  life's  cares  I'est  lightly  upon 
you,"  said  the  Paper  "Weight.  "  Stick  to  each  other  through  thick 
and  thin,"  said  the  Mucilage  Bottle.  Complete  the  story,  bringing 
up  each  object  that  is  commonlv  found  on  a  library  table  to  give 
its  consfratulations. 


*o^ 


Little  Boy  Blue,  come  blow  your  horn  ; 

The  sheep  are  in  the  meadow,  the  cows  in  the  corn. 

Weave  a  story  of  the  war  aboait  Little  Boy  Blue,  after  the  style 
of  Nine  Little  Goslings,  by  Susan  Coolidge. 

The  Story  of  the  Willow  Pattern. 

The  well-known  willow  pattern  on  Canton  china,  is  said  to  be 
an  illustration  of  an  old  Chinese  story.  Make  up  a  story  which 
the  picture  will  illustrate. 

Rewrite  the  old  stories  of  "  Baucis  and  Philemon  "  —  "  Midas  and 
the  Golden  Touch  "  —  "  Jason  and  the  Golden  Fleece  "  —  "  Theseus 
Meeting  his  Father,"  etc.  —  Imitate  the  style  of  Hawthorne's 
Wonder-Book. 


Note.  —  It  will  bo  found  tliat  the  members  of  the  class  have  many  inci- 
dents in  mind  which  can  be  molded  into  better  stories  than  any  indicated 
here,  if  they  are  encouraged  to  write  them. 


142  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

VERSIFICATION. 

Poetry  is  a  kind  of  Composition  in  which  the  sense  of 
prose  is  combined  with  tlie  time  of  music.  No  poetry 
can  be  good  which  does  not  cominne  both  elements  in 
a  liigh  degree  —  the  thouglit  must  be  fine,  tlie  rliythm 
perfect.  Rhyme  is  not  essential  to  poetry,  but  exists  in 
most  modern  forms  of  it. 

By  Verse  we  mean  Avords  arranged  in  a  succession  of 
accented  and  unaccented  syllables. 

Accent  is  a  stress  of  voice  laid  on  some  syllable  or 
syllables  of  a  word.  In  English,  monosyllables  have 
no  natural  accent,  but  may  take  one  from  their  mean- 
ing or  position.  Words  of  two  syllables  always  have 
one  accented.  The  accent  of  poetry  must  always  fall 
upon  the  syllable  of  a  word  which  is  naturally  accented, 
—  in  addition  it  may  sometimes  fall  upon  an  unaccented 
syllable. 


LESSON  LXI.-METEE,   OE  POETICAL  MEASUEES. 

A  Foot  is  a  group  of  accented  and  unaccented  sylla- 
bles. English  Verse  has  four  standard  feet,  besides 
several  irregular  feet,  which  frequently  appear. 

The  Standard  Feet  of  English  verse  are  Trochee, 
Iambus,  Dactyl,  and  Anapest.  Each  of  these  feet  has 
one  accented  syllable  and  one  or  two  unaccented  sylla- 


VERSIFICATION.  143 

bles.  The  kind  of  foot  depends  npon  the  number  of 
syllables  in  the  foot  and  the  particular  syllable  accented. 
A  Trochee  is  a  foot  of  two  syllables,  the  first  accented, 
the  second  unaccented.  Its  time  can  be  marked  precisely 
as  two-part  time  is  marked  in  music :  as  one '-two,  one'- 
two,  one '-two,  one '-two.  An  accented  syllable  in  the 
following  examples  is  marked  (— ),  an  unaccented  (^). 
A  line  of  four  feet  is  marked  thus  :  — ^  I  — ^  I  — ^  I  _w  |. 

A  typical  example  of  Trochaic  verse  is  the  following :  — 

w       w       v_y        \y 

I^ives  of  I  great  men  |  all   re  |  niiiul   us. 

The  word  Trochee  is  a  trochee;  that  is,  it  has  two  syllables,  and  is 
accented  on  the  first. 

An  Iambus  is  a  foot  of  two  sjdlables,  having  the  first 
unaccented,  the  second  accented.  Its  time  can  be 
marked  in  the  same  way  as  the  time  of  music,  only 
the  accent  should  fall  upon  the  last  beat  of  the  measure : 
as  one-two',  one-two',  one-two',  one-two'. 

vy      w, \^       w     w      

Ex.   The  cur  |  few  tolls  |  the  knell  |  of  part  |  iug  day. 

The  first  two  syllables  of  the  word  Iambus  make  an  iambus. 

A  Dactyl  is  a  foot  of  three  syllables,  having  the  first 
accented,  the  second  and  third  unaccented.  Its  time  is 
the  regular  three-part  time  of  music:  one '-two-three, 
one '-two-three. 

Kj    \j       \j    \^  \J        w        \y    <^ 

Ex.  Bird  of  the  |  wilderness,  |  blithesome  and  |  cumberless. 

The  name  Dactyl  is  derived  from  SaKTvXns,  a  finger.  The  reference 
seems  to  be  to  the  length  of  the  bones  in  the  finger,  beginning  at  the 
knuckle  joint. 

An  Anapest  is  a  foot  of  three  syllables,  having  the 
third  sylhible  accented,  the  first  and  second  unaccented. 
Its  time  is  the  three-part  time  of  niusit;,  w  itli  Uic  accent 


144  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

on  the  last  beat  instead  of   the  first:    one-two-three', 
one-two-three',  one-two-three'. 

Ex.   And  tlie  eyes  |  of  the  sleep  |  ers  waxed-dead  |  ly  and  chill. 

The  name  Anapest  is  from  avdnaiaTos,  struck  back,  i.e.  reversed.  It  is 
a  reversal  of  the  dactyl. 

Tlie  greater  portion  of  English  poetry  is  v^^ritten  in  iambic  verse. 
Tlie  anapest  and  dactyl  give  a  musical  swing  to  the  verse,  but  have 
a  more  artificial  effect  than  the  iambus.  The  character  of  trochaic 
verse  is  light  and  tripping.  Any  one  of  these  feet  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  any  other,  and  as  a  matter  of  fact,  verse  in  which  such 
substitutions  occur  is  pleasanter  to  the  ear  than  that  in  which  they 
do  not.  Such  substitutions  change  the  rhythm,  but  do  not  alter 
the  meter. 

Irreguhir  Feet  in  English  are  the  following :  — 
Amphibrach,  consisting  of  three  syllables,  first  and 
third  unaccented ;  the  second  accented.  This  is  some- 
times regarded  as  a  standard  foot,  but  as  it  can  always 
be  resolved  into  other  feet,  it  is  well  to  be  very  care- 
ful concerning  it. 

o 

yj       vy         \y       ^       \j     yj 

Ex.   And  o'er  his  |  cold  ashes  |  upbraid  him. 

Pyrrhic  consists  of  two  short  or  unaccented  syllables. 
The  fact  that  English  uses  so  many  prepositions,  con- 
junctions, and  articles  makes  this  irregular  foot  very 
common. 

Sometimes  one  accented  syllable  takes  the  place  of 
an  entire  foot.  This  happens  oftenest  at  the  end  of  a 
line  —  not  infrequently  at  the  beginning.  An  entire 
line  is  sometimes  made  in  this  way,  as  for  example :  — 

Break,  break,  break 

KJ       \J         \y       KJ  \J     

At  the  foot  I  of  thy  crags,  |  0  sea. 

Sometimes  an  unaccented  syllable  is  found  at  the  end  of  a  line, 
but  this  is  held  not  to  mar  the  regularity  of  the  verse.     It  simply 


VERSIFICATION.  145 

does  not  count.  The  real  principle  seems  to  be  that  there  should 
be  so  many  accented  syllables,  and  the  unaccented  are  not  closely 
considered.  Now  and  then  a  foot  appears  containing  four  syllables. 
License  was  greater  in  Shakespeare's  and  Milton's  time  than  now. 

Lines  of  poetry  are  named  according  to  the  number 
of  feet  that  compose  them ;  as,  — 

\j 

Monometer.  —  turning. 

Dimeter.  — Take  her  up  |  tenderlj'. 

v_y        w  w 

Trimeter.  —  Up  tiie  |  airy  |  mountain. 
Tetrameter.  —  Froze  the  |  ice  on  |  lake  and  |  river. 

\y       \y    \y      \^        \^        

Pentameter.  — And  lost  |  to  life  1  and  use  |  and  name  |  and  fame. 

Hexameter.  —  Known  to  me  |  well  are  the  |  faces  of  |  all;  their  | 

_      w  v_/       

names  T  re  |  member. 

Lines  may  also  be  named  both  from  the  kind  of  foot  and  the 
number  of  them;    as,  Iambic  monometer,   Dactylic  dimeter,  etc. 

Iambic  tetrameter  predominates  in  old  English  ballads.  Scott 
uses  it  in  tlie  Lm/  of  the  Last  Minstrel,  Marmion,  and  the  Lady  of 
the  Lake.  The  Prisoner  of  Chillon,  by  Lord  Byron,  is  also  written 
in  this  measure. 

Iambic  pentameter  verse  without  rhyme  is  called  blank  verse, 
or  the  heroic  measure.  All  English  epic  and  dramatic  poetry,  as 
well  as  many  descriptive  poems,  are  written  in  this  measure. 


LESSON  LXII.  -  SCANNING. 

Scanning  is  dividing  a  line  of  poetry  into  feet,  or 
reading  it  according  to  the  accent,  pausing  slightly  at 
the  end  of  eacli  foot. 


14G  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMrOSITION. 

The  easiest  waj'^  to  learn  to  scan  poetry  is  to  exaggerate  the 
accented  syllables  so  as  to  get  the  time  of  the  verse.  When  sure 
of  the  accented  syllables,  mark  them.  Observe  that  the  accented 
syllables  of  words  keep  their  accent  in  verse.  Afterward  mark  the 
unaeoented  syllables.  Then  try  if  the  verse  can  be  divided  into 
feet  of  two  sylhibles;  if  not,  try  three.  Only  one  accented  syllable 
is  found  in  a  foot.  Frecpiently  a  verse  will  contain  one  or  more 
feet  which  differ  from  the  prevailing  foot ;  for  example,  a  trochee 
may  appear  among  iambics,  or  an  iambic  among  dactyls,  and  often 
an  accented  syllable  takes  the  jilace  of  an  entire  foot  at  the  end  of 
a  line,  sometimes  at  the  beginning.  The  verse  is  named  from  the 
prevailing  foot. 

EXERCISE   I. 

\j      <^         \-j     w      

The  muf  [fled  drums'] sad  roll] has  beat 

The  sol  1  dier's  last  |  tattoo ; 
No  more  on  life's  parade  shall  meet 

That  brave  and  fallen  few. 
On  Fame's  eternal  camping  ground 

Their  silent  tents  are  spread. 
And  glory  guards  with  silent  round, 

The  bivouac  of  the  dead.  —  Theodore  O'Hara. 

How  many  syllables  in  a  foot  in  this  poem  ?  Which  syHable  is  acceuted  ? 
Name  the  loot.  How  many  feet  iu  the  first  liue  ?  What  should  the  line  be 
called?  How  many  in  the  second  line?  What  should  it  be  called?  What 
lines  rhyme  ?  How  many  lines  iu  the  stanza  ?  Beat  the  time  of  the  first 
line ;  of  the  second. 

Haste  thee,  nymph,  and  bring  with  thee 

Jest  and  youthful  Jollity ; 

Quips,  and  cranks,  and  wanton  wiles, 

Nods,  and  becks,  and  wreathed  smiles. 

Such  as  hang  on  Hebe's  cheek, 

And  love  to  live  in  dimple  sleek  — 

Sport  that  wrinkled  Care  derides. 

And  Laughter  holding  both  his  sides.  —  Milton. 

Mark  the  accented  and  unaccented  syllables  in  the  first  four  lines. 
What  is  the  time?  Which  syllable  of  the  foot  takes  the  accent?  Name 
the  first  line.    How  many  syllables  in  the  last  foot  of  the  second  line? 


VERSIFICATION^  147 

Name  that  foot.    How  has  the  measure  changed  in  the  last  four  Hues? 
Wliat  nymph  is  referred  to?    What  figures  of  rhetoric  in  the  selection? 

Cannon  to  right  of  them, 

Cannon  to  left  of  them, 

Cannon  in  front  of  them 

Volleyed  and  thundered.  —  Tennyson. 

Mark  the  accented  and  unaccented  syllables.    What  kind  of  foot  is  here 
used  ?    Name  the  lines. 

I  am  monarch  of  all  I  survey, 

My  right  there  is  none  to  dispute ; 
From  the  centre  all  round  to  the  sea, 

I  am  lord  of  the  fowl  and  the  brute.  —  Coicper. 

Beat  the  tim^  of  this  measure.    What  kind  of  foot  is  here  ?    What  kind 
of  foot  begins  the  second  line? 

The  mossy  marbles  rest 

On  the  lips  that  he  has  prest 

In  their  bloom ; 
And  the  names  he  loved  to  hear 
Have  been  carved  for  many  a  year 

On  the  tomb.  —  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 

This  is  an  example  of  varied  rhythm.    Mark  the  accented  syllables  and 
divide  them  into  feet.    Name  the  different  lines  from  the  prevailing  foot. 

EXERCISE    II. 

Scan  the  following  lines  :  — 

Cheerily,  then,  my  little  man. 

Live  and  laugh  as  boyhood  can. —  Whittier. 

How  dear  to  my  heart  are  the  scenes  of  my  childhood. 
When  fond  recollection  presents  them  to  view ! 

The  orchard,  the  meadow,  the  deep  tangled  wild-wood, 

And  every  loved  spot  which  my  infancy  knew.  —  Wuodworth. 

Comrades,  leave  me  here  a  little,  while  as  yet  'tis  early  morn. 

Leave  me  here  and  when  you  want  me,  sound  upon  the  bugle  horn. 

—  Tennijson. 
Work,  work,  work, 

Till  the  brain  begins  to  swim.  —  Hood. 


148  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Good  Hamlet,  cast  thy  iiiglitcd  color  off 

And  let  thine  eye  look  like  a  friend  on  Denmark. 

—  Shakespeare. 
The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day ; 

The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea; 
The  plowman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 

And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  nie.  —  Gray. 

Is  this  a  fast,  —  to  keej-) 

The  larder  lean, 

And  clean 
From  fat  of  veals  and  sheep?  —  Herrick. 

And  oft  as  on  my  couch  I  lie. 

In  vacant  or  in  pensive  mood, 
They  flash  upon  that  inward  eye 

Which  is  the  bliss  of  solitude ; 
And  then  my  heart  with  pleasure  thrills 

And  dances  with  the  daffodils.  —  Wordsworth. 

Know  ye  the  land  where  the  cypress  and  myrtle 
Are  emblems  of  deeds  that  are  done  in  their  clime ; 

Where  the  rage  of  the  vulture,  the  love  of  the  turtle 

Now  melt  into  softness,  now  madden  to  crime?  —  Byron. 

Creator,  Preserver,  Redeemer  of  men, 

Divine  Intercessor  above  — 
Oh  !  where  shall  the  song  of  thy  praises  begin, 

Or  how  shall  I  speak  of  thy  love ! 

This  may  be  scanned  as  amphibraclis,  with  iambics  at  the  end  of  each 
line. 


LESSON  LXIII.  -  WRITING  OP  JINGLES. 

There  are  few  persons,  perliaps,  who  can  write  poetry, 
but  the  ability  to  write  jingles,  —  that  is  to  put  ordinary 
commonplace  thought  into  the  form  of  meter  and 
rhyme,  —  can  be  easily  acquired  by  nearly  every  one. 


VERSIFICATION.  149 


EXERCISE   I. 

One  of  tlie  simplest  forms  of  jingle  is  that  which 
appears  so  often  in  the  hrst  books  for  children :  — 

Ex.    A  is  the  apple  tree  out  in  the  field, 

B  is  the  bird's  nest  by  blossoms  concealed ; 
C  is  the  carol  that  ■welcomes  the  dawn, 
D  is  the  dew  that  besp)angles  the  lawn  ; 
E  is  the  egg  which  the  robin  has  laid  — 
F  is  the  forest  flower  blooming  in  shade. 

If  you  observe  this  simplest  of  all  jingles,  you  see  it  is  made  up 
of  lines  which  have  four  accented  syllables.  The  lines  will  run  in 
dactylic  measure,  the  last  foot  being  represented  by  one  accented 
syllable.  The  only  irregularity  is  in  the  last  line,  which  has  five 
syllables  that  should  take  an  accent,  and  one  is  slurred  over  some- 
wliat  in  reading.  This  kind  of  work  is  so  easy,  one  might  say 
with  Touchstone,  "  Til  rhyme  you  so  eight  years  together,  dinners 
and  suppers  and  sleeping  hours  excepted." 

Rhyme  the  alphabet  in  this  or  some  similar  way. 

EXERCISE    II. 

Imitate  or  complete  the  following  alliterative  jingle:  — 

A  was  an  athlete,  of  archers  afraid ; 
B  was  a  blanket  bound  with  brocade. 
C  was  a  cynical,  charming  cashier  ; 
D  was  a  dolx^hin,  who  dreamed  of  a  deer. 

EXERCISE   in. 
Complete  the  nonsense  rhyme  :  — 

Ten  little  sparrows  sat  in  a  line, 

One  flew  away,  and  then  there  were  niue. 

Nine  little  sparrows  flew  over  the  gate, 
One  alighted,  and  then  there  were  eight. 

Write  similar  rhymes  with  boys,  girls,  dogs,  kittens,  rosos,  etc., 
in  place  of  sparrows. 


150  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Rhyme  the  mouths,  seasons,  days  of  week,  either  with  their 
characteristics  or  the  occupations  associated  with  them. 

]\Ialve  Rhyming  Riddles  about  Common  Tilings,  such  as  matches, 
watch,  pen,  lead-pencil,  etc.     Examples:  — 

A  dozen  bold  riders  IMarblo  walls,  as  white  as  milk, 

Astride  of  oue  naj;;,  Lined  witli  slviu,  as  soft  as  silk; 

No  clothes  ou  their  bodies,  Within  a  crystal  fountain  clear 

Not  even  a  rag.  A  golden  apple  doth  appear. 

They  ride  without  bridles  There  is  no  door  to  this  stronghold, 

Or  stirrups  or  spurs,  Yet  thieves  break  in  and  steal  the  gold. 
And  stick  to  their  saddles  —An  Egg. 

Like  so  many  burrs. 

• —  Clothes-Pins.    From  St.  Nicholas. 

EXEllCISE    IV. 

Take  two  pairs  of  rliyining  words  and  write  a  four- 
line  stanza. 

For  example,  with  tlie  words  night,  wlaite,  storm,  warm,  these 
lines  were  written :  — 

Snowfiakes,  falling  through  the  night, 
Robe  the  leafless  trees  in  white; 
On  the  fields  the  whirling  storm 
Spreads  a  blanket  soft  and  warm. 

Write  the  Song  of  tlie  Cricket  with  the  words  trill,  shrill,  stone, 
alone. 

Song  of  the  Crow  —  using  go,  row,  snow,  crow. 
This  exercise  can  be  varied  and  extended  indefinitely. 

EXERCISE    V. 

Complete  the  following  jingle  :  — 
A  HUNGRY  SPIDER. 

A  hungry  spider  made  a  web 

Of  thread,  so  very  tine 
Your  tiny  fingers  scarce  could  feel 

The  little  slender  line. 
Rouud  about  and  round  about 

And  round  about  it  spun. 
Straight  across  and  back  again, 

Until  the  web  was  done. 


VEESIFICATIOK.  151 

Observe  that  the  first  four  lines  are  regular  iambic  tetrameters 
and  trimeters.  The  last  four  are  slightly  irregular,  which  makes 
the  meter  pleasant  to  the  ear  —  the  first  foot  being  represented  by 
one  accented  syllable. 

Fill  out  the  second  stanza. 

Oh,  what  a shiniug 


It  was  when  it  was  done ; 
The  little  flies came  to 

It  hanging  in  the  . 

Eound and ■ 

And  round  about  they  danced, 
Across  the  — -  and  back 

They  darted  and  they . 

Write  out  a  third  stanza  —  telling  how  the  hungry  spider  watched 
the  flies,  and  that  it  coidd  see  all  round  because  it  had  so  many 
eyes.  Make  flies  and  eyes  rhyme.  Keep  the  meter  true,  that  is, 
no  more  than  four  or  three  accented  syllables  in  any  line ;  the 
unaccented  syllables  may  vary.     Change  the  refrain  slightly. 

Write  out  a  fourth  stanza  with  the  spider  telling  the  flies  how 
hungry  he  is.     Vary  the  refrain  slightly. 

Write  out  the  conclusion  either  happily  for  the  flies  or  for  the 
spider. 


LESSON  LXIV.  -  CLASSIFICATION  OF  POETRY. 

Poetry  may  be  divided  broadly  into  three  great 
classes :  the  Narrative,  the  Lyric,  and  the  Dramatic. 

Narrative  Poetry. 

The  first  among  narrative  poems  is  the  Epic.  The 
Great  Epics  —  Plomer's  Iliad  and  Odyssey^  Virgil's 
JEneid,  the  Niehelunyen-Lied,  Dante's  Divine  Comedy^ 
and  Milton's  Paradise  Lost  —  are  long  poems,  dealing 
with  grave,  heroic  subjects,  and  whose  characters  in- 
clude both  gods  and  men. 


152  STUDIES   IN  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

The  Metrical  Roinancu  is  a  narrative  poem,  less  dig- 
iiilied  than  a  great  Epic.  Scott's  Marmion  and  Lady  of 
the  Lake,  Tennyson's  LlyU  of  the  King,  and  Long- 
fellow's Evangeline  are  well-known  examples. 

The  Tale  is  also  narrative  and  may  or  not  be  humor- 
ons.  Chaucer's  Knight's  Tale,  Tennyson's  Enoch 
Arden,  Pope's  Bape  of  the  Lock,  Lowell's  Vision  of 
Sir  Launfal,  and  Whittier's  Mogg  Mego7ie  are  ex- 
amples. 

The  Ballad  is  a  poem,  short,  simple,  and  condensed. 
This  is  usually  the  first  form  of  literature  which  appears 
among  any  people.  Well-known  ballads  are  The  Ballad 
of  Chevy  Chase,  The  Diver,  by  Schiller,  The  Lays  of 
Ancient  Rome,  by  Macaulay,  and  The  Skeleton  in  Af-mor, 
by  Longfellow. 

Lyric  Poetry. 

This  name  was  originally  applied  to  those  poems 
which  were  intended  to  be  sung.  They  are,  primarily, 
poems  of  emotion  and  sentiment.  It  is  not  now  con- 
sidered necessary  that  they  should  be  sung.  Lyric 
poetry  may  be  broadly  divided  into  the  Song,  Ode, 
Elegy,  and  Sonnet. 

A  Song  may  be  sacred  or  secular.  Of  sacred  songs, 
The  Psalms  of  David,  the  Greek  Hymns,  and  the  hymns 
of  our  churches  are  examples.  Secular  songs  may  be 
patriotic,  convivial,  comic,  or  sentimental.  The  Star 
Spangled  Banner  and  Hail  Columbia  are  examples  of 
patriotic  songs. 

An  Ode  is  more  complex  in  structure  than  the  song. 
It  is  not  usually  sung.  Dryden's  Ode  to  St.  Cecilia, 
Lowell's  Commemoration  Ode,  and  Tennyson's  Ode  on 
the  Death  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  are  examples. 


VERSIFICATION.  153 

An  Elegy  is  like  an  Ode  in  structure  and  is  sad  in 
its  character. 

A  Sonnet  is  a  complete  poem.  The  common  form 
has  fourteen  lines  of  iambic  pentameters,  grouped  into 
two  quatrains  (four  lines)  and  two  tercets  (three  lines). 
The  two  outside  lines  of  each  quatrain  rhyming  to- 
gether, and  likewise  the  two  middle  lines  of  each ; 
the  first,  second,  and  third  lines  of  the  first  tercet 
rhyming  with  the  first,  second,  and  third  lines  of 
the  second.  This  will  be  better  understood  by  an 
example :  — 

MILTON'S  SONNET   ON    HIS   BLINDNESS. 

When  I  consider  how  my  life  is  spent 

Ere  half  my  days,  in  this  dark  world  and  wide, 

And  tliat  one  talent,  which  is  death  to  hide, 

Lodged  with  me  useless,  though  my  soul  more  bent 

To  serve  therewith  my  jNIaker,  and  present 

My  true  account,  lest  he,  returning  chide  ; 

Doth  God  exact  day-labor,  light  denied  ? 

I  fondly  ask.     But  Patience,  to  prevent 

That  nuirraur  soon  replies,  God  doth  not  need, 

Either  man's  work  or  his  own  gifts.     Who  best 

Bear  his  mild  yoke,  they  serve  him  best.     His  state 

Is  kingly  ;  thousands  at  his  bidding  speed, 

And  post  o'er  land  and  ocean  without  rest; 

They  also  serve  who  only  stand  and  wait. 

Select  the  quatrains  —  the  tercets.  Variations  in  the  sonnet 
occur  in  the  tercets. 

Dramatic  Poetry. 

This  is  poetry  written  to  be  acted.  The  two  great 
divisions  are  Tragedy  and  Comedy. 

Tragedy  in  its  severer  tyj)e  leans  to  a  fatal  catas- 
trophe, as  in  Hamlet  and  Macbeth, 


154  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Comedy  once  meant  all  dramas  that  were  not  trage- 
dies, but  now  it  means  those  in  which  the  comic  element 
predominates.  Shakespeare's  Comedy  of  Errors  is  an 
example  of  pure  comedy  in  the  modern  sense. 


LESSON  LXV. -LIST   OF   SUBJECTS   RELATING   TO 
POETRY  AND   POEMS. 

Compare  The  Iliad  and  The  Odyssey. 

Use  Bryant's  Translation.  Subject  matter  of  each  —  Iliad  deals 
largely  with  fighting  —  Odyssey  is  story-telling.  The  heroes  of 
each  —  their  distinguishing  characteristics  —  which  is  most  inter- 
esting V  —  why  ? 

Give  the  Story  of  any  one  of  the  Great  Epics. 
The  Poets  of  a  Single  Poem. 

Many  well-known  poems  were  written  by  obscure  persons,  and 
frequently  only  one  poem  of  an  author  is  well  known. 

My  Favorite  Poems. 

Name  several  of  your  favorite  poems.  Give  the  reasons  for 
your  preference  —  make  quotations. 

Some  Famous  Odes. 

Study  one  or  more  of  the  following  odes  :  — 

Ode  to  the  Passions,  by  Collins. 

Alexander's  Feast,  by  Dry  den,  considered  by  Macaulay  his  best 
and  greatest  work.     It  was  set  to  music  by  Handel,  in  1736. 

A  Song  for  St.  Cecilia's  Day,  by  Dry  den. 

Ode  on  St.  Cecilia's  Dai/,  by  Pope.  Observe  in  the  first  seven- 
teen lines,  and  to  some  extent  throughout  the  poem,  a  variation 
of  the  meter  to  correspond  with  the  varying  sentiments  and  feel- 


VERSIFICATION.  155 

iugs  expressed.  St.  Cecilia's  day  is  the  22d  of  November,  and 
■was  formerly  celebrated  in  England  with  musical  entertainments, 
and  it  was  for  such  entertainments  that  these  St.  Cecilia  Odes  were 
written. 

Ode  on  the  Intimations  of  Immortality,  by  Wordsworth.  Emerson 
says  of  this  poem  "  that  it  is  the  high-water  mark  which  the  intel- 
lect has  reached  in  this  age." 

Ode  on  the  Death  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  by  Tennyson. 

Commemoration  Ode,  by  Lowell. 

National  Songs  of  Different  Conntries. 

Yankee  Doodle  —  Hail  Columbia  —  Star  Spangled  Banner  — 
God  Save  the  Queen  —  The  Marseillaise  —  The  Watch  on  the 
Rhine  —  Scots  wha'  ha'. 

War  Songs  of  North  and  South  during  the  Civil 
War. 

Battle  Hymn  of  the  Republic  —  Dixie  —  My  Maryland  —  The 
Bonny  Blue  Flag  —  Tramp,  Tramp,  Tramp,  the  Boys  are  March- 
ing —  Kingdom's  Coming  —  Rally  Round  the  Flag,  Boys  —  Tent- 
ing To-night  —  When  Johnny  Comes  Marching  Home  —  Just 
Before  the  Battle,  Mother  —  Marching  through  Georgia  — John 
Brown's  Body. 

Some  Famous  Ballads. 

The  Battle  of  Chevy  Chase  —  The  Battle  of  Otterbourne  —  Sir 
Patrick  Spens — Childe  Maurice — The  Twa  Corbies  —  Lord  Lovell 
—  Thomas,  the  Rhymer  — The  Children  in  the  Wood. 

Famous  and  Weil-Known  Hymns. 

Among  old  Latin  Hymns  are  Dies  Ircc,  of  which  Scott  begins  a 
translation  in  "The  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel";  Veni  Sancte  Spir- 
ilus,  famous  as  being  the  work  of  King  Robert  of  France;  Stabat 
Mater,  which  is  so  frequently  sung ;  The  Hymn  of  St.  Bernard ; 
Jesus,  the  Very  Thought  of  Thee;  and  Jerusalem,  the  Golden, 
which  appears  in  the  hymn-books  in  so  many  different  forms. 

Ein  fester  Burg  ist  unser  Gott  is  Luther's  well-known  hynni. 


156  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Of  inodeni  liyimis  ca  few  staiul  unsurpassed:  Ilock  of  Ages  — 
Jesus,  Lover  of  ]My  Soul— By  Cool  Siloain's  Shady  Kill  —  From 
Greenland's  Icy  Mountains  —  Nearer,  My  God,  to  Thee  — Nearer 
Home  —  Lead,  Kindly  Light  —  All  Hail,  the  Power  of  Jesus'  Name  1 

—  and  many  others. 

Give  the  several  authors,  circumstances  under  which  the  hymns 
were  written,  and  (quotations. 

Songs  of  the  Bible. 

Song  of  Moses,  Exodus  xv.  Song  of  Deborah,  Judges  v.  Song 
of  Hannah,  I.  Sam.  ii.  Psalms  of  David.  The  Song  of  Solomon. 
Magnificat  of  Mary,  St.  Luke  i.  46-56.  Gloria  in  Excelsis,  St.  Luke 
ii.  14.  Nunc  Dimittis  of  Simeon,  St.  Luke  ii.  29.  The  passage 
1.  Tim.  iii.  16  is  best  explained  as  a  quotation  from  a  hymn  in 
praise  of  Christ.  The  Proverbs  are  didactic  poems ;  their  poetic 
structure  is  shown  by  the  parallelism  which  runs  through  them. 

The  Poet  Laureate  of  England. 

The  duties  of  the  office  —  its  history  —  who  have  held  it  —  the 
present  laureate. 

Dialect  Poems. 

Such  poems  comparatively  recent.  Writers  of  dialect  poems : 
Lowell,  Bret  Harte,  John  Hay,  James  Whitcomb  Riley. 

Living  American  Poets. 

Name  those  well  known  —  divide  into  groups  according  to  merit 

—  characteristics  of  each.     Those  who  write  poetry  only  —  those 
who  also  write  prose. 


STUDIES    IN    SHAKESPEARE.  157 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

STUDIES  IJV  SHAKESPEARE. 

Shakespeare's  magic  could  not  copied  be, 

Within  that  circle  none  durst  walk  but  he.  —  Dryden. 

The  sweete,  wittie  soul  of  Ovid  lives  in  melifluous  and  honey- 
tongued  Shakespeare.  —  Frances  Meres. 

I  loved  the  man  and  do  honor  his  memory  on  this  side  idolatry 
as  much  as  any.  He  was,  indeed,  honest,  and  of  an  open  and  free 
nature,  had  an  excellent  fancy,  brave  notions,  and  gentle  expres- 
sions...—  Ben  Jonson. 

Sweetest  Shakespeare,  Fancy's  child.  —  Milton. 

A  popular  player  —  nobody  suspected  he  was  the  poet  of  the 
human  race.  —  Emerson. 


LESSON    LXVI.  —  BIOGEAPHIOAL    SKETCH    OP    SHAKE- 

SPEAEE. 

EXERCISE   I.  —  ORAL   EXERCISE. 

Let  the  class  find  the  answers  to  these  questions  from  any  trust- 
worthy source. 

Born  in  1504;    Died  in  161 G. 

Note.  —  These  dates  can  be  remembered  perh.aps  if  it  is  observed  that 
half  of  eac'h  K!  is  8,  and  tliese  multiplied  together  give  G4,  which  is  the 
year  of  the  Kith  century  in  which  he  was  born. 

Name  of  father  —  maiden  name  of  mother  —  father's  occupa- 
tion —  where  educated  —  youthful  marriage  —  maiden  name  of 
wife  —  nuniber  of  children  —  boyish  exploit  that  sent  him  to 
London  —  life  there  —  how  he  made  his  fortune  —  return  to  Strat- 


158  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

ford  —  business  —  last  illness  —  death  —  burial  —  his  will.  Has  he 
any  direct  descendants?  How  many  autographs  are  in  existence? 
How  many  portraits?  What  was  the  fate  of  Shakespeare's  home, 
the  New  Place?  Of  his  mulberry  tree  ?  Why  has  his  body  never 
been  removed  to  Westminster  Abbey  ?  Who  now  owns  the  house 
where  he  was  born?  How  many  plays  did  he  write?  Date  of 
first  edition  of  his  plays?  of  second  edition  ?  How  did  Shakespeare 
spell  his  own  name?  For  whom  has  the  claim  of  authorship  of 
Shakespeare's  plays  been  made  ?  Is  this  claim  accepted  by  Shake- 
spearian scholars?  Name  five  Englishmen  who  were  Shakespeare's 
contemporaries.  During  what  reigns  did  he  live?  What  has 
Shakespeare  written  beside  plays? 

Sir  Thomas  Lucy  was  the  magistrate  who  punished  Shakespeare 
for  poaching,  and  a  rhyme,  in  which  there  was  a  play  upon  the 
country  pronunciation  of  Liicy  as  Lousie,  is  said  to  be  the  cause 
of  Shakespeare's  departure  for  London. 

"The  house  at  Stratford,  where  Shakespeare  lived,  no  longer 
exists.  New  Place  descended  from  his  daughter  Susanna*  to  his 
grand-daughter  IMrs.  Nash,  afterwards  Lady  Barnard,  and  there, 
during  the  civil  wars,  that  lady  and  her  husband  in  1643  received 
Henrietta  Maria,  the  queen  of  Charles  I.,  who  remained  with  them 
three  weeks.  After  passing  through  the  hands  of  several  interven- 
ing proprietors,  it  fell  into  the  possession  of  Sir  Hugh  Clopton, 
who  pulled  down  the  ancient  house  and  built  one  more  elegant  on 
the  same  spot.  This  was  in  its  turn  destroyed  by  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Gastrell,  because  he  conceived  himself  assessed  too  highly;  and  it 
was  by  the  same  barbai-ous  hands  that  the  celebrated  mulberry 
tree  which  Shakespeare  himself  had  planted  was  cut  down,  because 
he  found  himself  inconvenienced  by  the  visitors  who  were  drawn 
by  admiration  of  the  poet  to  visit  the  classic  ground  on  which  it 
stood." 

For  the  belief  that  an  autograph  of  Shakespeare  exists  in  Chi- 
cago, see  Charles  Dudley  Warner's  Studies  in  the  South  and  West. 

Note.  —  The  following  lines  are  ■  engraved  on  the  stone  which  covers 
Shakespeare's  grave :  — 

Good  frend  for  .Tesus  sake  forbeare 
To  digg  the  dust  encloased  heare 
Blest  be  ye  man  y'  spares  these  stones 
And  curst  be  he  y'  moves  my  bones. 


STUDIES    IN    SHAKESPEAKE.  159 

EXERCISE    II.  —  WRITE    A    BIOGRAPHICAL    SKETCH    OF 

SHAKESPEARE. 


LESSON  LXVII.-THE  PLAY  OF  JULIUS   OllSAR. 

This  tragedy  was  probably  written  about  the  year  1607.  The 
real  length  of  time  in  Julius  Ccesar  is  as  follows:  About  the  middle 
of  February,  a.u.c.  709,  a  festival  sacred  to  Pan  and  called  Luper- 
calia  was  held  in  honor  of  Caesar,  when  the  crown  was  offered  to 
him  by  Antony/  On  the  15th  of  March  in  the  same  year  he  was 
slain.  November  27,  a.u.c.  710,  the  triumvirs  met  at  a  small  island 
formed  by  the  river  Rhenus,  near  Bononia,  and  there  arranged  their 
cruel  proscription,  a.u.c.  711,  Brutus  and  Cassius  were  defeated 
near  Philippi. 

Class  should  first  read  the  play  carefixlly,  principally  for  the 
story.  Study  words  sufficiently  to  make  the  meaning  clear.  Ob- 
serve Shakespeare's  tendency  to  rhyme  the  last  two  lines  of  a 
scene.  Also  his  love  of  puns.  Find  the  answers  to  the  following 
questions :  — 

Who  is  the  hero  of  this  play  ?  Whence  does  the  story  of  the 
ghost  come  ?  Was  it  Caesar's  ghost  ?  Where  did  Shakespeare  get 
his  materials?  What  is  the  date  of  the  Ides  of  jNIarch  ?  What 
was  the  feast  of  Lupercalia?  What  omen  terrified  Calphurnia? 
What  allusion  in  Hybla  bees?  Who  was  Epicurus?  What  were 
tlie  unities  of  the  ancient  play-writers?  Did  Shakespeare  have  any 
regard  to  the  unities?  Why  is  this  called  a  tragedy?  Give  the 
derivation  and  history  of  the  word  tragedy. 

EXERCISE  I.  —  ORAL. 

Give  the  story  of  the  play  connectedly. 
Give  the  acts  of  the  play  and  the  action  m  each  one. 
Make  four  quotations  from  memory. 

Give  a  sketch  of  Brutus's  character ;  e.f/.  honesty,  weakness,  lack 
of  judgmont.  fortitude,  prido.     lllnstrate  by  quotations. 


160  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Give  a  sketch  of  the  character  of  Cassius ;  e.g.  jealousy,  craft, 
keen  judgment,  anger,  fortitude,  greed  for  money.  Illustrate  by 
quotations. 

Give  a  sketch  of  Antony;  e.c/.  dissipation,  devotion  to  CiBsar, 
craft,  oratorical  power,  dishonesty.     Illustrate  by  quotations. 

EXERCISE   II.  —  WRITTEN. 

Give  the  plot  of  the  play  in  not  more  than  one  thousand  words. 
Give  a  sketch  of  the  character  of  Brutus,  of  Cassius,  of  Antony, 
of  Portia. 

Make  a  collection  of  the  well-known  quotations  of  the  play. 
Tell  wherem  the  play  differs  from  the  facts  of  history. 


LESSON  LXVIII. -THE   PLAY  OE  MIDSUMMEK  NIGHT'S 

DREAM. 

Read  the  play  as  before,  principally  for  the  story.  Find  the 
answers  to  these  questions. 

How  many  groups  of  characters  in  this  play  ?  Name  the  indi- 
viduals of  each  group.  Who  were  the  supernatural  people?  Who 
was  Theseus  in  mythology?  Hypolyte?  Whence  did  the  story  of 
Pyramus  and  Thisbe  come  ?  What  part  of  the  play  is  absolutely 
original  with  Shakespeare?  How  does  Shakespeare's  treatment 
of  the  fairies  differ  from  all  other?  (He  allows  the  fairies  to  speak 
for  themselves.)  Does  Shakespeare  give  the  fairies  a  conscience  ? 
What  kind  of  places  do  they  love?  What  objects  do  they  fear? 
What  are  their  duties  ?  What  compliment  to  Queen  Elizabeth  in 
the  play?  Wliat  flower  is  Love-in-idleness?  Does  Puck  enjoy  his 
mischief?  Give  illustrations.  Does  Bottom  really  know  whether 
he  is  a  donkey  or  a  man?  Is  there  anything  in  his  previous  con- 
duct that  makes  the  change  to  a  donkey's  head  seem  poetic  jus- 
tice? Can  this  play  be  easily  acted?  Where  would  the  difficul- 
ties lie  ? 


STUDIES    IN    SHAKESPEARE.  161 


EXERCISE    I.  —  WRITTEN. 

Give  the  plot  of  the  play  in  not  more  than  one  thousand  words. 
Give  the  story  of  the  four  lovers. 
The  story  of  the  fairies. 

The  characteristics  of  fairies  as  shown  in  this  play  —  size,  occu- 
pation, disposition. 

Give  the  well-known  quotations  from  this  play. 


LESSON   LXIX. -LIST   01   SUBJECTS   EELATING   TO 

SHAKESPEARE. 

The  Portraits  of  Shakespeare. 

The  Stratford  Bust  in  the  chancel  of  Holy  Trinity  Church  at 
Stratford-upon-Avon.  The  Droeshout  Engraving,  which  appears 
upon  the  title-page  of  the  first  collected  edition  of  Shakespeare's 
plays,  published  in  1623,  and  generally  known  as  the  first  folio. 
Upon  the  same  page  are  the  well-known  verses  by  Ben  Jonsoii, 
certifying  to  its  accuracy.  The  Chandos  Portrait,  which  is  the 
popularly  accepted  representation  of  Shakespeare.  The  Death 
Mask,  otherwise  known  as  the  Kesselstadt  Mask.  The  Hilliard 
Miniature  and  the  Monument  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Read  Portraits  of  Shakespeare,  by  J.  Parker  Norris. 

Sources    from   wliich    Shakespeare    obtained    his 
Plots. 

Any  good  English  Literature  will  give  all  necessary  information. 

The  Tragedies  of  Shakespeare. 

The  tragic  in  art,  according  to  the  ordinary  conception,  is  that 
which  portrays  an  unhappy  end. 

Thnon  of  Athens,  the  tragedy  of  property.  Romeo  and  Juliet, 
the  tragedy  of  lovers.  Othello,  the  tragedy  of  husband  and  wife. 
Kin(/  Lear,  the   tragedy  of   parent   and    childi-en.      Macbeth   and 


162  STUDIES   IIT  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Hamlec  are  both  "tragedies  in  wliicli  into  the  natural  world  of  real 
shapes  is  woven  a  .supernatural  world  of  mysterious  shapes  —  the 
Weird  Sisters  and  llauilet's  Ghost."  These  are  tragedies  of  family 
and  state. 

Note  the  hero  in  each  play  —  his  fate  and  the  cause. 

The  Fairies  of  the  Pkiys. 

Oberou  is  a  fairy  name  which  came  into  the  language  from  the 
French.  Titania  is  another  name  for  Diana.  Puck  is  a  name 
once  applied  to  the  whole  race  of  fairies.  Robin  Goodfellow  is 
also  an  old  name.  The  names  Peasblossom  and  Cobweb  are  Shake- 
speare's creation. 

In  the  description  of  Puck  nearly  all  fairy  characteristics  are 
given.    Haunts  of  Fairies,  — 

"I  know  a  bank  whereon  the  wild  thynie  grows." 

What  are  fairy  rings?  Compare  Ariel  with  Puck.  Note  the 
size  of  Queen  Mab  in  Romeo  and  Juliet. 

The  Ghosts  of  Shakespeare's  Plays. 

The  ghost  in  Hamlet.  Banquo's  ghost.  The  ghost  in  Julius 
Ccesar.     Nature  and  vocation  of  ghosts  according  to  Shakespeare. 

Clowns  and  Fools  of  Shakespeare. 

The  originals  of  these  characters  —  their  wise  sayings  —  their 
dress  —  their  relations  to  their  master.  For  example,  Touchstone 
in  .4s  You  Like  Tt,  Clown  in  Twelfth  Night,  Clown  in  The  Winter's 
Tale,  Fool  in  Ki)ig  Lear. 

Was  Hamlet  Insane  ? 

Follow  Hamlet  through  the  play  with  the  one  thought  in  mind : 
Is  his  behavior  sane  or  not?  Observe  his  own  references  to  his 
condition  —  "  antic  disposition  "  —  "  my  wit's  diseased  "  ;  also  his 
persistent  desire  to  tease  and  mock  Polonius.  Polonius'  opinion  of 
his  sanity  —  the  king's  —  his  mother's.  Observe,  too,  that  with 
Horatio  he  is  always  sane,  nor  does  Horatio  ever  give  any  evidence 
of  thinking  him  insane.  Would  a  madman  plan  so  cunningly  the 
death  of  Guildenstern  and  Pvosenkrantz  ?  Study  particularly  Ham- 
let's conduct  in  the  grave  scene.     Remember  that  four  hypotheses 


STUDIES   IN   SHAKESPEAEE.  163 

are  possible :  first,  that  his  madness  is  real ;  second,  that  it  is 
feigned;  third,  that  it  is  both  real  and  feigned;  and  fourth,  that 
it  is  neither  real  nor  feigned. 

Read  The  Shakespearian  Drama,  by  Denton  J.  Snider. 

The  Three  Witches  m  Macbeth. 

Follow  them  carefully  through  the  play.  Note  three  things 
concerning  them :  in  their  surroundings  they  prefer  the  disagree- 
able ;  in  personal  appearance  they  are  repulsive  ;  in  moral  qualities 
they  are  evil.  In  describing  them  Shakespeare  has  followed  the 
common  beliefs  of  his  time  —  "  killing  swine  "  —  "  sailing  in  a 
sieve,"  etc.  He  has  also  given  them  additional  powers  —  the  third 
sister  is  prophetic  and  by  her  prophecies  she  tempts  Macbeth  and 
Lady  Macbeth  to  the  murder  of  Duncan.  Part  of  the  time  they 
can  be  seen  by  any  one ;  part  of  the  time  they  are  only  visible  to 
Macbeth.  Note  particularly  the  scene  where  Hecate  brings  up  the 
apparitions,  and  their  deceiving  prophecies  which  lure  Macbeth  to 
his  ruin. 

The  Flowers  of  Shakespeare. 

Columbine,  Hamlet,  Act  IV.  sc.  5.  This  was  anciently  termed  a 
thankless  flower. 

Crow-flower,  Hamlet,  Act  IV.  sc.  7.  This  formerly  meant  ragged- 
robin  ;  now  means  buttercup. 

Cuckoo-buds,  Love's  Lahor  Lost,  Act  V.  sc.  2. 

Daffodil,  The  Wintei-'s  Tale,  Act  IV.  sc.  3,  4.  Wild  daffodil  of 
England. 

Darnel,  Kinr/  Lear,  Act  IV.  sc.  4.  The  name  was  used  in  Shake- 
speare's day  to  denote  any  hurtful  weed. 

Fennel,  Hamlet,  Act  IV.  sc.  .5.     Emblematic  of  flattery. 

Fern,  /.  Klnr/  Henry  IV.,  Act  II.  sc.  1.  Fern  seed  was  supposed  to 
possess  the  power  of  rendering  persons  invisible. 

Flower-de-luce,  //.  Kifig  Henry  VI.,  Act  V.  sc.  1 ;  /.  King  Henry 
VI.,  Act  T.  sc.  2.  The  flower  meant  and  the  derivation  of  the 
■word  are  both  doul)tful. 

Lady-smocks,  Love's  Lahor  Lost,  Act  V.  sc.  2.  This  plant  so 
called  from  the  resemblance  of  its  white  flowers  to  little  smocks 
hung  out  to  dry. 


IG-i  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Long  Purples,  Hamlet,  Act  IV.  sc.  7.     The  early  purple  orchis  of 

"Warwickshire. 
Love-in-idleness,  A  Midsummer  NigJil's  Dream,  Act  11.  sc.  1;  Act  IV. 

sc.  1.     This  is  the  pansy,  and  was  used  in  love  philters  in  Shake- 
speare's day. 
]\Iandrake  or  Mandragora,  II.  King  Henry    VI.,  Act  III.  sc.  2 ; 

Romeo  and  Jidiet,  Act  IV.  sc.  3;   Othello,  Act  III.  sc.  3;  Antony 

and  Cleopatra,  Act  I.  sc.  5.     Much  folk-lore  gathers  around  the 

mandrake.     It  was  believed  to  have  an  inferior  kind  of  animal 

life.     It  was  also  believed  to  be  an  opiate. 
JNIarigold,  The  Winter's  Tale,  Act  IV.  sc.  4 ;  Cymheline,  Act  II.  sc.  3. 
Primrose,  Hamlet,  Act  I.  sc.  3 ;   The  Winter's  Tale,  Act  IV.  sc.  4. 
Rose,  Hamlet,  Act  III.  sc.  4  ;  Act  III.  sc.  1 ;   Kinr/  John,  Act  I. 

sc.  1.     /.  King  Henry  VI.,  Act  IL  sc.  4,  refers  to  the  roses  of 

York  and  Lancaster. 
Rosemary,  Hamlet,  Act  IV.  sc.  5;   The  Winter's  Tale,  Act  IV.  sc. 

4 ;  Romeo  and  Juliet,  Act  I.  sc.  .5. 
Violet,  Hamlet,  Act  V.  sc.  1 ;  Pericles,  Act  IV.  sc.  1  ;  The  Winter's 

Tale,  Act  IV.  sc.  4;  A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,  Act  II.  sc.  1. 

The  beauties  of  Greece  tinged  their  eyes  of  an  obscure  violet 

color. 

Birds  of  Shakespeare. 

Blackbird,  called  Ousel,  A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,  Act  III. 
sc.  1 ;  II.  King  Henry  IV.,  Act  IIL  sc.  2. 

Cock,  Hamlet,  Act  I.  sc.  1,  refers  to  the  old  superstition  that  spirits 
fly  at  cock-crow.  Diversion  of  cock-fighting  referred  to  in  Antony 
and  Cleopatra,  Act  II.  sc.  3. 

Crow,  Julius  Ccesar,  Act  V.  sc.  1. 

Cuckoo,  A  Midsummer  Night^s  Dream,  Act  III.  sc.  1  ;  King  Lear, 
Act  I.  sc.  4;  1.  King  Henry  IV.,  Act  V.  sc.  1 ;  Antony  and  Cleo- 
patra, Act  II.  sc.  6.  It  is  still  a  common  idea  among  the  peas- 
ants of  Europe  that  the  cuckoo  will  tell  by  its  cries,  if  asked, 
how  long  any  one  has  to  live. 

Dove,  Hamlet,  Act  V.  sc.  1 ;  I.  King  Henry  VI.,  Act  II.  sc.  2  ;  The 
Winter's  Tale,  Act  IV.  sc.  4 ;  The  Merchant  of  Venice,  Act  II. 
sc.  2.     An  emblem  of  fidelity,  modesty,  and  devotion. 

Eagle,  111.  King  Henry  VL,  .Act  11.  sc.  1 ;  Julius  Cmsar,  Act  V.  sc. 
1 ;  Cymbeline,  Act  IV.  sc.  2 ;   Titus  Andronicus,  Act  IV.  sc.  4. 


STUDIES   IN   SHAKESPEARE.  165 

Lapwing,  Hamlet,  Act  V.  sc.  2;  The  Comedy  of  Errors,  Act  IV.  sc. 
2;  Much  Ado  About  Nothing,  Act  III.  sc.  1.  It  was  a  common 
notion  in  Shakespeare's  time  that  yoiing  lapwings  ran  out  of  the 
shell  with  part  of  it  sticking  on  their  heads,  they  were  in  such 
haste  to  be  hatched. 

Lark,  Cymheline,  Act  II.  sc.  3;  Love's  Labor  Lost,  Act  V.  sc.  2; 
The  Merchant  of  Venice,  Act  V.  sc.  1 ;  Romeo  and  Juliet,  Act  III. 
sc.  5;  King  Henry  VIII.,  Act  III.  sc.  2. 

Nightingale,  The  Merchant  of  Venice,  ActV.  sc.  1 ;  Romeo  and  Juliet, 
Act  III.  sc.  5;  A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,  Act  II.  sc.  2. 

Owl,  Troilus  and  Cressida,  Act  II.  sc.  1;  Macbeth,  Act  II.  sc.  3; 
III.  King  Henry  VI.,  Act  V.  sc.  6 ;  A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream, 
Act  V.  sc.  1 ;  Julius  Coisar,  Act  I.  sc.  3 ;  The  Comedy  of  Errors, 
Act  II.  sc.  2;  The  Tempest,  Act  V.  sc.  1.  Hamlet,  Act  IV.  sc.  5, 
refers  to  an  old  legend  that  a  baker's  daughter  was  changed  into 
an  owl  for  refusing  Christ  a  piece  of  bread. 

Pelican,  King  Lear,  Act  III.  sc.  4. 

Pigeon,  Titus  Andronicus,  Act  IV.  sc.  3;  Act  IV.  sc.  4;  The  Win- 
ter's Tale,  Act  IV.  sc.  3;  ^.s^  You  Like  It,  Act  III.  sc.  3. 

Raven,  Julius  Caisar,  Act  V.  sc.  1 ;  Othello,  Act  IV.  sc.  1 ;  Macbeth, 
Act  I.  sc.  5 ;  As  You  Like  It,  Act  II.  sc.  3. 

Swallow,  The  Winter's  Tale,  Act  IV.  sc.  4;   Timon  of  Athens,  Act 

III.  sc.  6;  Antony  and  Cleopatra,  Act  IV.  sc.  12. 

Swan,  The  Merchant  of  Venice,  Act  III.  sc.  2 ;  Othello,  Act  V.  sc.  2 ; 

King  John,  Act  V.  sc.  7. 
Wren,  A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,  Act  III.  sc.  1 ;  Macbeth,  Act 

IV.  sc.  2. 

Customs   Connected  with  the   Calendar,  as  Illus- 
trated by  Shakespeare. 

Twelfth  Day  (Jan.  6).  Shakespeare's  play,  Twelfth  Night,  took  its 
origin  in  the  festivities  associated  with  this  festival. 

St.  Valentine's  Day  (Feb.  14).  Birds  are  supposed  to  choose  their 
mates  on  this  day,  hence  A  Midsummer  Night''s  Dream,  Act  IV. 
sc.  1. 

Shrove-Tuesday  (Tuesday  before  Ash-Wednesday,  the  beginning 
of  Lent).  A  day  devoted  to  merriment;  whence  originated  the 
custom  of  eating  pancakes  is  unknown.  All's  Well  That  Ends 
Well,  Act  II.  sc.  2 ;  II.  King  Henry  IV.  Act  V.  sc.  3. 


166  STUDIES  IN  ENGLISTI   COMPOSITION. 

Lout.  A  figure  made  up  of  straw  and  cast-oif  clothes  was  drawn  or 
carried  through  the  streets  amid  much  noise  and  merriment; 
afterwards  it  was  usually  burned.  This  image  was  called  Jack- 
a-Lent,  and  was  probably  intended  to  represent  Judas  Iscariot. 
The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,  Act  Til.  sc.  3;  Act  V.  sc.  5.  In  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth  butchers  were  not  allowed  to  sell  flesh  meat 
in  Lent,  though  sometimes  they  got  special  permission  to  do  so. 
II.  Kin f/  Henry  VI.,  Act  IV.  sc.  8;  //.  Kijig  Henry  1V.\  Act 
II.  sc.  4. 

Good  Friday.    Last  Friday  in  Lent.    /.  King  Henry  IV.,  Act  I.  sc.  2. 

Easter.  It  was  considered  unlucky  not  to  wear  something  new  ou 
Easter  Day.     Romeo  and  Juliet,  Act  III.  sc.  1. 

St.  David's  Day  (Mai'ch  1).  Observed  by  the  Welsh  in  honor  of 
St.  David,  their  patron  saint.  On  this  day  they  wear  a  leek. 
King  Henry  V.,  Act  IV.  sc.  1,  sc.  7. 

St.  Patrick's  Day  (March  17).     Hamlet,  Act  I.  sc.  5. 

St.  George's  Day  (April  23).  Patron  saint  of  England,  "whose 
name  should  be  revered  on  earth,  but  whose  deeds  are  known 
only  in  heaven."  I.  King  Henry  VI.,  Act  I.  sc.  1 ;  King  Henry 
v..  Act  III.  sc.  1 ;  /.  King  Henry  VI.,  Act  IV.  sc.  2 ;  King  John, 
Act  IL  sc.  1. 

May-Day  (May  1).  King  Henry  VIII.,  Act  V.  sc.  3;  A  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream,  Act  I.  sc.  1.  In  olden  times  nearly  every  village 
had  its  Maypole,  decorated  with  flowers,  ribbons,  and  flags,  romid 
which  the  people  danced  from  morning  until  night.  //.  King 
Henry  VI.,  Act  III.  sc.  1.  Feature  of  May-Day  festivities  was 
the  Morris-dance. 

Midsummer  Day  (June  24).  Twelfth  Night,  Act  III.  sc.  4.  A 
period  when  imagination  ran  riot. 

Michpelmas  Day  (Sept.  29).  The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,  Act  I. 
sc.  1. 

St.  Crispin's  Day  (Oct.  25).  Pati'on  saint  of  shoemakers.  King 
Henry  V.,  Act  IV.  sc.  3. 

Hallowmas  (Nov.  1).      Tiro  Gentlemen  of  Verona,  Act  II.  sc.  1. 

All  Souls'  Day  (Nov.  2).     King  Richard  III.,  Act  IV.  sc.  1. 

St.  Martin's  Day  (Nov.  11).     /.  King  Henry  VI.,  Act  I.  sc.  2. 

Christmas.     Hamlet,  Act  I,  sc.  1, 


STUDIES    FOIl    BOOK    REVIEWS.  167 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 
STUDIES   FOR   BOOK  REVIEWS. 

A  book  review  aims  to  give  the  reader  a  general  idea 
of  the  book  reviewed,  telling  in  what  department  of 
literature  it  falls,  —  as  history,  biography,  story,  essay, 
—  also  the  general  aim  or  purpose  of  the  book. 

A  review  should  also  consider  the  style  and  manner 
in  which  the  book  is  Avritten  —  both  its  strong  and  its 
weak  points.  The  characters  should  be  sketched  and 
their  peculiarities  remarked.  The  work  may  be  com- 
pared with  other  works  of  the  same  author,  or  with 
others  of  the  same  class.  If  the  book  reviewed  is  a 
history,  the  time  it  covers  should  be  noted;  if  essays, 
the  topics  treated ;  if  a  novel,  a  brief  sketch  of  the 
plot  may  be  given ;  if  a  poem,  its  metrical  character, 
as  well  as  its  thought,  should  be  considered. 

Book  reviews  do  not  fall  under  any  one  rule ;  they 
vary  from  the  lengthy  essays  of  Macaulay  and  Jeffrey 
to  the  brief  references  in  the  book  columns  of  the  daily 
newspaper. 


LESSON  LXX.  — STUDY  Or  MODEL. 

EXERCISE   I.  —  AX   EXAMPLE   FROM  MACAULAY. 

One  of  the  best  known  book  reviews  is  that  of  Macau- 
lay  upon  Southey's  Edition  of  the  Pilgrim^s  Progress. 


168  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

The  review  begins  with  a  notice  of  the  engravings  of 
the  book.     Some  of  these  are  complimented,  others  are 
not.      Indeed,  considerable  space  is  given  to  a  sharp 
criticism  upon  the  work  of  one  artist.     The  writer  then 
comes   to   the   subject-matter  of   the    book  itself.      He 
begins :   '^  The  characteristic  peculiarity  of  the  Pilgrim's 
Progress  is,  that  it  is  tlie  only  work  of  the  kind  which 
possesses    a   strong  human  interest.     Other  allegories 
only  amuse    the   fancy ;    the    allegory   of    Bunyan   has 
been   read   by  thousands  with   tears."      The   reviewer 
then  goes  on  to  specify  the  different  well-known  alle- 
gories, —  Tlie  Vision  of  Mirza,  The  Contest  between  Rest 
and  Pleasure,  The  Fairy  Queen,  —  and  compares  them 
to  the  Pilgrim'' s  Progress.     He  continues:  "Dr.  John- 
son, all  whose  studies  were  desultory  and  who  hated, 
as  he  said,  to  read  books  through,  made  an  exception 
in  favor   of   the   Pilgrim's    Progress.      That  work,   he 
said,  was  one   of   the  two  or  three  which  he  wished 
longer.  ...    In  the  wildest  parts  of  Scotland  the  Pil- 
grim's Progress  is  the  delight  of  the  peasantry.    In  every 
nursery  it  is  a  greater  favorite   than  Jach  the   Giant- 
Killer.     Every  reader  knows  the  straight  and  narrow 
path  as  well  as  he  knows  a  road  in  which  he  has  gone 
backward  and  forward  a  hundred  times.     This  is  the 
highest  miracle  of  genius,  that  things  which  are  not 
should  be  as  though  they  were ;  that  the  imaginations 
of  one  mind  should  become  the  personal  recollections 
of  another.    And  this  miracle  the  tinker  has  wrought. 
The  wicket  gate  and  the  desolate  swamp  which  sepa- 
rates it  from  the   City  of   Destruction  ;    the  long  line 
of  road,  as  straiglit  as  a  rule  can  make  it;  the  Inter- 
preter's house,  and  all  its  fair  shows;   the  prisoner  in 
the  iron  cage ;  the  palace,  at  the  doors  of  which  armed 


STUDIES    FOR   BOOK   REVIEWS.  169 

men  kept  guard,  and  on  the  battlements  of  which 
walked  persons  clothed  all  in  gold ;  the  cross  and  the 
sepulchre ;  the  steep  hill  and  the  pleasant  arbor ;  the 
stately  front  of  the  House  Beautiful  by  the  wayside  ; 
the  low  green  valley  of  Humiliation,  rich  with  grass 
and  covered  with  flocks,  all  are  as  well  known  to  us 
as  the  sights  of  our  own  street." 

In  this  way  the  reviewer  recounts  the  story  to  the 
end  of  the  book.  He  then  continues:  "  We  follow  the 
travellers  through  their  allegorical  progress  with  inter- 
est not  inferior  to  that  with  which  we  follow  Elizabeth 
from  Siberia  to  Moscow,  or  Jennie  Deans  from  Edin- 
burg  to  London.  Bunyan  is  almost  the  only  writer 
that  ever  gave  to  the  abstract  the  interest  of  the  con- 
crete. .  .  .  The  Pilgrim's  Progress  undoubtedly  is  not 
a  perfect  allegory.  The  types  are  often  inconsistent 
with  each  other,  and  sometimes  the  allegorical  disguise 
is  altogether  thrown  off.  But  we  do  not  believe  that 
any  man,  whatever  might  be  his  genius,  could  long 
continue  a  figurative  history  without  falling  into  many 
inconsistencies.  The  best  thing,  on  the  whole,  that  an 
allegorist  can  do,  is  to  present  to  his  readers  a  succes- 
sion of  analogies,  each  of  which  may  separately  be 
striking  and  happy,  without  looking  very  nicely  to  see 
whether  they  harmonize  with  each  other.  This  Bunyan 
has  done,  and  the  effect  Mdiich  the  tale  produces  on  all 
persons,  learned  and  unlearned,  proves  that  he  has 
done  well." 

The  Prisoner  of  Cldllon.     Lord  Byron. 

For  prologue,  a  sonnet  on  Chilloii ;  coiii[)arc  the  structure  of 
the  sonnet  with  tliat  of  Milton  on  /fis  Blindness.  The  poem  is 
written  in  fourteen  cantos  of  iambic  tetrameters.     Each  canto  has 


170  STUDIES    IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

a  central  idea  as  a  paragraph  has ;  find  what  these  central  ideas 
are.  Observe  the  pathetic  ending  of  Canto  II.  By  whom  is  the 
poem  assnmed  to  be  written?  How  complete  is  the  description  of 
the  younger  brother  —  of  the  second  brother?  What  is  the  effect 
upon  the  reader  of  Cantos  VII.  and  \'III.  In  what  way  did  com- 
fort finally  come  to  the  cui)tive  ?  Has  l>yron  pictured  correctly  the 
effect  of  long  iniprisonmetit  upon  the  human  mind?  Was  the 
hero  of  the  poem  a  real  character  ? 

A  Dissertation  upo7i  Roast  Pig.    Charles  Lamb. 

Begin  by  telling  who  Lamb  was,  and  relating  a  few  of  the 
circumstances  of  his  life.  Never  mind  the  dates  of  birth  and 
death,  those  facts  are  common  to  all,  and  need  not  be  emphasized 
unless  for  especial  reasons.  The  time  of  his  literary  activity  may 
be  approximately  given. 

This  essay  one  of  many.  Observe  the  mock-historic  air  with 
which  it  begins  —  the  reference  to  the  Chinese  manuscript  —  the 
careful  narration  of  events  —  finally,  the  climax.  Also  the  same 
mock-historic  air  in  the  account  of  the  trial  —  the  humor  of  the 
verdict  —  finally.  Lamb's  own  directions  for  the  roasting  of  a  pig. 
Give  the  characteristics  of  Lamb's  style  as  they  seem  to  you. 

The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal.    James  Russell  Lowell. 

The  quest  of  the  Holy  Grail  is  one  of  the  legends  of  the  INIiddle 
Ages  which  still  keeps  its  significance  to  the  modern  mind.  No 
more  exquisite  retelling  of  it  exists  in  the  language  than  The 
Vision  of  Sir  Launfal.  The  poem  opens  with  a  Prelude,  which 
is  a  series  of  pictures  of  early  summer.  Give  quotations  which 
shall  show  these.  Part  I.  gives  the  young  man's  con.^eption  of  the 
way  he  is  to  find  the  Holy  Grail.  Is  it  a  correct  one?  What  is 
the  climax  of  Part  I.  ?  What  does  the  Prelude  of  Part  II.  fore- 
shadow? What  lesson  has  the  old  man  learned?  What  is  the 
climax  of  Part  II.  ?     Why  is  the  ending  particularly  happy? 

Rah  and  His  Friends.     Dr.  John  Brown. 

Boy-like  introduction  —  interest  in  dog  fights  —  devotion  to  the 
conqueror.  Personality  of  Rab  made  quite  as  clear  as  that  of  his 
master  or  mistress.     Beautiful  character  of  Ailie  —  devotion  of  her 


STUDIES    FOR    BOOK    REVIEWS.  171 

husband.  Explain  Rab's  conduct  after  the  death  of  botli.  Is  it 
true  to  dog  nature  ?  Is  it  artistically  correct  to  have  llab  and  his 
master  both  die  after  the  death  of  Ailie  ? 

Tlie  Man   Without  a    Country.      Edward  Everett 
Hale. 

Invented  history  —  devices  to  strengthen  its  appearance  of 
reality  —  repetition  of  incidents  to  deepen  the  illusion  —  the  one 
reality  of  the  story  made  clear,  and  that  is,  the  effect  upon  a  man 
to  live  without  a  country.  A  lesson  in  patriotism.  Observe  how 
skilfully  the  quotation  from  the  Lcvj  of  the  Last  Minstrel  is  woven 
into  the  story.  The  skill  of  the  writer  makes  out  of  a  fictitious 
character  and  an  impossible  situation  a  most  pathetic  story. 


LESSON   LXXL  — PEOSE  PIOTION. 

By  the  term  fiction,  a  narrative  composition  is  always 
understood.  Works  of  fiction  are  of  two  kinds  —  those 
in  which  the  agencies  are  entirely  within  ordinary  expe- 
rience and  those  in  which  they  are  not.  In  the  latter 
case  the}^  are  called  romances ;  in  the  former,  stories  of 
common  life. 

Stories  of  common  life  are  divided  into  tales  of  adven- 
ture and  novels.  The  novel  in  its  highest  and  best 
form  is  the  counterpart  in  prose  to  the  epic  in  poetry, 
and  like  it,  treats  of  "  one  great  complex  action  in  a 
lofty  style  and  witli  fulness  of  detail."  Whatever  be 
its  form,  the  novel  should  possess  unity  of  plan.  Novels 
may  refer  to  the  past  and  deal  with  great  historical 
characters,  oy  picture  great  events ;  in  which  case,  they 
are  called  historical  novels.  The  ordinary  novel,  how- 
ever, pictures  either  the  present  or  an  immediate  past. 


172  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Sometimes  the  distinction  is  made  between  romantic 
novels  and  realistic  novels.  A  romantic  novel  would 
partake  more  or  less  of  the  nature  of  a  romance,  while 
a  realistic  novel  would  aim  to  represent  life  exactly 
as  it  is.  Sir  Walter  Scott's  novels  may  be  taken  as  a 
type  of  the  romantic  school,  while  those  of  William  D. 
Howells  would  well  represent  the  realistic. 

LIST  OF  NOVELS  TO  BE  STUDIED  FOR  REVIEWS. 

In  order  to  write  upon  any  of  the  following  topics,  it  is  necessary 
to  read  carefully  the  book  under  which  they  stand. 

David  Copperjicld.     Charles  Dickens. 

,   Family  Groups  of  the  Characters. 
Descriptions  of  Places  and  Persons. 
The  Characteristic  Sayings  of  Different  Characters. 
A  Sketch  of  David's  Boyhood. 
Betsey  Ti-otwood. 
The  Micawber  Family. 
Peculiarities  and  Characteristics  of  Dickens's  Style. 

Ivanlioe.     Sir  Walter  Scott. 

The  Home  and  Household  of  Cedric  the  Saxon. 
The  Tournament  of  Prince  John. 
The  Holy  Clerk  of  Copemanhurst. 
Storming  of  the  Castle  of  Fi-ont  de  Boeuf. 
The  Trial  and  Release  of  Rebecca. 
The  Feudal  Age  as  Pictured  by  Scott. 

Silas  Marner.     George  Eliot. 

How  Silas  Marner  became  a  Miser. 

Squire  Cass's  Household. 

Eppie's  Childhood. 

The  Character  of  Godfrey  Cass. 

Effect  of  the  Care  of  Eppie  upon  Silas  Marner. 

Descriptions  of  Persons  and  Places. 


STUDIES    FOR    BOOK   REVIEWS.  173 

Descriptions  of  George  Eliot  and  Dickens,  Compared. 
George  Eliot  as  a  Delineator  of  Motives. 

Lorna  Doon.     R.  D.  Blackmore. 

The  First  Meeting  of  John  Ridd  and  Lorna  Doon. 

The  Doon  Stronghold. 

John  Ridd's  Home. 

Tom  Faggus. 

The  Rescue  of  Lorna. 

Overthrow  of  the  Doons. 

Descriptions  of  Persons  and  Places. 

The  Tiiiie,s  of  the  Restoration  as  Pictured  by  Blackmore. 

Lorna  Doon  as  a  Guide-book  to  Bagworthy  Forest. 

Ben  Hur :  A  Tale  of  the  Christ.    Lew  Wallace. 

The  Meeting  of  the  Three  Wise  Men. 

The  Character  of  Messala. 

The  Sheik  Ilderim. 

The  Chariot  Race. 

Christ  as  a  Character  in  the  Story. 

Ben  Hur  as  a  Christian. 

Little  Women.     Louisa  Alcott. 

A  New  England  Home,  as  Pictui'ed  by  Miss  Alcott. 
Character  of  the  Four  Daughters,  as  Shown  by  Incidents. 
Different  Plans  for  Amusement. 
Little  Women,  Compared  with  Its  Sequel,  Little  Men. 

The  Rise  of  Silas  Lapham.     William  D.  Howells. 

The  Newspaper  Interviews. 

The  Partnership  with  Mr.  Rogers. 

The  Coreys,  Father  and  Son. 

Penelope's  Conscience. 

The  Character  of  Silas  Lapham. 

Impression  of  the  Book  as  a  Whole. 

Mr.  Howells's  Characteristics  as  a  Writer. 


174  STUDIES    IN    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 
PERSUASIVE  DISCOURSE. 

LESSON    LXXIL  — THE   ART    OF   PEESUASION. 

A  man  convinced  against  iiis  will 

Is  of  the  same  opinion  still.  —  Old  Proverb. 

Not  he  is  great  who  can  alter  matter,  but  he  who  can  alter  my 
state  of  mind.  —  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 

There  is  probably  no  one,  young  or  old,  who  has 
not  at  some  time  felt  a  desire  to  influence  the  opinion 
and  conduct  of  others.  The  child  tries  to  induce  his 
parents  to  grant  his  requests,  the  boy  to  lead  his  com- 
panions to  do  as  he  wishes,  to  think  as  he  does ;  the 
man  to  influence  his  friends,  the  lawyer  to  win  his  jury, 
the  minister  to  benefit  his  congregation,  the  politician 
to  carry  the  people  with  him.  Each  one  has  attempted 
to  persuade.  If  he  has  succeeded  in  doing  this,  he  has, 
consciously  or  unconsciously,  followed  certain  definite 
principles.  It  is  to  the  study  of  these  principles  that 
this  chapter  is  devoted. 

Persuasion  is  an  effort  to  influence  the  will,  and 
through  the  will  to  affect  the  conduct.  The  will  is 
influenced  in  two  ways :  through  the  emotions  or 
through  the  judgment.  In  the  first  instance,  the  appeal 
is  made  to  the  feelings;  in  the  second,  to  the  reason. 
These  appeals  are  named,  respectively,  exhortation  and 


PERSUASIVE   DISCOUliSE.  175 

argument.  Both  are  necessary  to  successful  persuasion, 
but  which  is  to  be  used  most  depends  upon  the  charac- 
ter of  the  person  or  audience  to  be  influenced,  as  Avell  as 
upon  the  character  of  the  speaker.  The  following  funda- 
mental principles  underlie  all  persuasive  discourse  :  — 

It  is  best  to  decide  at  first  whether  you  will  use  argument  to 
influence  the  reason,  or  exhortation  to  move  the  feelings,  or  both. 

No  one  would  address  an  audience  of  lawyers  as  he 
would  a  mixed  audience,  or  a  group  of  children  as  he 
would  a  company  of  adults.  Instinctively,  in  trying 
to  persuade  people,  we  appeal  to  their  feelings  or  their 
reason,  according  as  we  think  the  one  or  the  other  will 
move  them.  It  is  well,  usually,  to  use  both  methods, 
and  the  character  of  your  listener  will  decide  which 
one  will  predominate. 

It  is  easier  to  move  the  feelings  by  narratives  and  descriptions 
than  by  direct  appeals. 

Persons  are  frequently  armed  against  direct  appeals, 
but  a  telling  story  or  a  pathetic  description  finds  them 
quite  unprepared  to  resist,  and  they  yield  at  once. 
Attend  a  missionary  meeting  and  see  how  the  audience 
are  brought  into  sympathy  with  the  speakers  by  tales 
of  foreign  lands.  Uncle  Tonis  Cabin  doubtless  con- 
vinced thousands  of  the  wrong  of  slavery,  who  would 
not  have  listened  for  one  moment  to  a  direct  appeal 
for  the  slave. 

The  question  to  be  discussed  should  be  clearly  stated.  If  neces- 
sary, define  it. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  point  at  issue 
should  be  perfectly  clear.  A  great  deal  of  useless  dis- 
cussion is  often  indulged  in  because  the  disputants  do 
not  understand  what  they  arc  talking  about. 


176  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Always  be  fair  to  those  wlio  oppose  you. 

Whatever  temporary  advantage  may  be  gained  by 
unfairness  is  usually  lost  in  the  end.  Nothing  helps 
a  debater  more  than  to  be  fair  to  liis  opponents. 
Mr.  Lincoln's  great  success  in  debate  was  largely  due 
to  his  habit  of  stating  his  opponents'  case  quite  as  well 
as  they  could,  and  then  when  he  had  overthrown  it 
there  was  nothino-  further  to  be  said. 

Put  yourself  on  good  terms  with  your  listeners. 

Experienced  speakers  do  this  in  a  variety  of  ways. 
Sometimes  by  means  of  a  story  or  an  anecdote,  to  make 
their  hearers  good-natured,  sometimes  by  agreeing  with 
them  as  far  as  possible,  sometimes  by  flattery  more  or 
less  concealed.  Especially,  if  a  speaker  is  addressing  a 
person  or  audience  prejudiced  against  his  cause,  it  is 
necessary  to  win  the  willing  attention  of  his  hearers  at 
any  cost,  otherwise  he  might  as  well  keep  silent. 

It  is  sometimes  well  to  anticipate  possible  objections 
and  answer  these  in  the  first  part  of  your  argument. 
This  may  free  the  minds  of  your  hearers  of  possible 
prejudice. 

State  the  arguments  separately.  It  is  well  to  begin  with  a 
strong  argument  and  usually  to  end  with  one.  Sometimes  they 
may  be  arranged  to  a  climax. 

It  is  well  to  make  a  good  impression  at  the  beginning 
and  also  at  the  close  of  your  argument.  It  is  necessary 
to  have  clearly  in  mind  what  your  arguments  are  before 
you  attempt  to  arrange  them. 

Do  not  dogmatize.  Let  the  conclusions  follow  from  your  argu- 
ments rather  than  from  your  personality. 

Let  the  conclusions  follow  from  your  arguments, 
rather  than  state  the  conclusions  first,  and  then  give 


PERSUASIVE   DISCOURSE.  177 

your  reasons.  People  are  willing  to  be  convinced,  but 
not  so  willing  to  be  told  beforehand  what  they  should 
do  or  think.  Arguments  stated  in  the  form  of  ques- 
tions are  frequently  very  effective,  for  the  reason  that 
they  do  not  assert,  but  compel  the  hearer  to  draw  the 
conclusion  for  himself. 

Guard  against  the  fallacy  of  supposing  that  because  two  events 
occur  together,  or  in  succession,  one  is  the  effect  of  the  other. 

It  often  happens  that  a  statement  seems  to  be  true 
when  it  is  not.  When  such  a  statement  is  used  as  an 
argument,  it  is  called  a  fallacy.  People  often  use  falla- 
cious arguments  Avithout  recognizing  tliem  as  such. 
This  kind  of  argument  is  also  used  by  speakers  who 
know  better,  and  is  often  heard  in  political  debate. 
If  "times  are  hard,"  it  is  often  charged  as  the  result 
of  this  or  that  political  condition  which  in  fact  has 
nothing  to  do  with  it. 

Guard  against  the  fallacy  of  supposing  that  because  one  thing 
is  true,  another  thing  very  much  like  it  must  be  true. 

This  is  the  fallacy  of  reasoning  by  analogy.  The 
error  lies  in  supposing  because  two  things  are  very 
much  alike  that  they  are  necessarily  exactly  alike. 
The  very  point  in  which  they  differ  may  be  the  one 
which  makes  it  impossible  for  them  to  be  judged  alike. 
Do  not  understand  tliat  no  arguments  by  analogy  are 
good  ones,  —  many  are, — l)ut  see  to  it  that  the  cases 
compared  are  alike  in  that  for  which  they  are  compared. 

It  is  well  at  the  end  to  make  a  summary  of  your  arguments. 
State  what  you  think  you  have  disproved  and  what  you  think  you 
have  proved. 

This  is  an  assistance  to  the  memories  of  your  hearers. 
It  impresses  what  you  have  said. 


178  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


LESSON   LXXm.  —  STUDY   OF   ANTONY'S   OEATION. 

One  of  the  finest  examples  of  the  Art  of  Persuasion 
is  the  speecli  of  Antony  over  tlie  dead  body  of  Csesar, 
in  Sliakespeare's  play  of  Julius  Ccesar.  Cajsar  has 
been  assassinated  by  the  conspirators,  and  Brutus  has 
already  addressed  the  Roman  populace  in  defence  of 
the  deed.  The  people  have  agreed  that  it  was  well 
and  wisely  done. 

Antony  ascends  tlie  pulpit  to  deliver  the  funeral 
oration  over  the  body,  according  to  the  Roman  custom, 
and  speaks  by  the  express  permission  of  Brutus.  Indeed, 
Brutus  begs  the  people  to  remain  and  hear  Antony's 
speech,  which  they  are  very  reluctant  to  do.  Their 
sympathy  is  all  for  Brutus  —  against  Caesar  and  against 
Antony,  who  is  to  speak  in  his  honor.  The  only  condi- 
tion that  Brutus  has  made  is  that  Antony  shall  not 
blame  the  conspirators. 

Antony  begins :  — 

Aiit.    Friends,  Romans,  countrymen,  lend  me  your  ears; 
I  come  to  bury  Caesar,  not  to  praise  him. 
The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them; 
The  good  is  oft  interred  with  their  bones ; 
So  let  it  be  with  Cassar.     The  noble  Bi-utus 
Hath  told  you  Cajsar  was  ambitious : 
If  it  were  so,  it  was  a  grievous  fault ; 
And  grievously  hath  Cajsar  answered  it. 
Here,  under  leave  of  Brutus  and  the  rest, 
(For  Brutus  is  an  honourable  man ; 
So  are  they  all,  all  honourable  men,) 
Come  I  to  speak  in  C.Tsar's  funeral. 
He  was  my  friend,  faithful  and  just  to  me: 
But  Brutus  says  he  was  ambitious ; 
And  Brutus  is  an  honourable  man. 


PERSUASIVE   DISCOURSE.  179 

This  is  the  introduction.  Antony  knows  his  audi- 
ence, knows  how  prejudiced  they  are,  and  desires  to 
win  them.  He  assumes  a  friendly  rehition  between 
himself  and  them  with  his  very  first  word.  Then  he 
explains,  —  "I  come  to  bury  Caesar,  not  to  praise  him." 
What  he  really  means  is  "  You  do  not  wish  to  hear 
Csesar  praised.  I  am  not  going  to  praise  him.  I  will 
agree  with  you  in  this."  He  passes  on  to  the  principal 
charge  made  by  Brutus,  that  Caesar  was  ambitious. 
He  does  not  admit  it,  nor  does  he  deny  it;  had  he 
denied  it,  his  audience  might  have  attacked  him  at 
once,  —  but  he  says,  "if  it  were  so,  it  was  a  grievous 
fault,  and  grievously  hath  Csesar  answered  it." 

Shakespeare,  with  fine  art,  has  put  into  Antony's 
mouth  the  past  subjunctive  which  denies  the  assertion 
by  implication.  He  assures  them  that  he  speaks  by 
Brutus'  permission,  repeats  twice  that  Brutus  is  an 
honorable  man,  and  explains  his  appearance  there  upon 
the  ground  that  Ctcsar,  whatever  his  faults  might  be, 
had  been  a  just  and  faithful  friend  to  him. 

He  continues :  — 

He  hath  brought  many  captives  home  to  Rome, 

Whose  ransoms  did  the  general  coffers  fill : 

Did  this  in  Cfesar  seem  ambitious  ? 

When  that  the  poor  have  cried,  C,x\sar  hath  wept : 

Ambition  should  be  made  of  sterner  stuff : 

Yet  Brutus  says  he  was  ambitious ; 

And  Brutus  is  an  honourable  man. 

You  all  did  see  that  on  the  Lupercal 

I  thrice  presented  him  a  kingly  crown, 

Which  he  did  thrice  refuse  :  was  this  ambition  ? 

Yet  Brutus  says  he  was  ambitious ; 

And,  sure,  he  is  an  honourable  man. 

I  speak  not  to  disprove  what  Brutus  spoke, 


180  ■     STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

But  here  I  am  to  speak  what  I  do  know. 

You  all  did  love  him  once,  not  without  cause : 

What  cause  withholds  you,  then,  to  mourn  for  him? 

O  judgment,  thou  art  fled  to  brutish  beasts, 

And  men  have  lost  their  reason  !  —  Bear  with  me  ; 

My  heart  is  in  the  coffin  there  with  Civsar, 

And  1  must  pause  till  it  come  back  to  me. 

Here  he  advances  three  arguments  to  disprove  the 
charge  that  Ca3sar  was  ambitious.  He  has  not  yet 
denied  tlie  charge,  he  is  going  to  let  his  arguments  do 
that;  he  will  allow  his  hearers  to  draw  their  own 
conclusions ;  he  will  simply  state  the  facts  and  ask  the 
question.  He  will  not  dogmatize.  They  may  answer 
it  for  themselves.  This  is  great  skill ;  he  does  nothing 
to  irritate  his  hearers.  His  three  arguments  are  strong, 
brief,  and  true.  The  ransoms  of  the  captives,  Caesar's 
kindness  to  the  poor,  and  the  refusal  of  the  crown  were 
all  well  known.  Each  one  was  strong  against  the 
charge.  Feeling  this,  Antony  bursts  out  into  an 
apostrophe  to  judgment,  and  then  giving  way  to  his 
own  feelings  for  a  moment,  apologizes  in  the  most 
pathetic  manner,—  "  Bear  with  me  ;  my  heart  is  in  the 
coffin  there  with  CsBsar,  and  I  must  pause  till  it  come 
back  to  me." 

In  the  meantime,  the  citizens,  who  were  so  unwilling 
to  hear  him  at  first,  begin  to  say  to  each  other  that 
what  he  says  has  much  reason  in  it,  and  that  they  wish 
him  to  go  on.  He  has  won  their  willing  attention, 
which  is  what  he  has  sought  from  the  first.  After  this 
interruption  he  continues  :  — 

A>it.  But  yesterday,  the  word  of  Csesar  might 
Have  stood  against  the  world :  now,  lies  he  there, 
And  none  so  poor  to  do  him  reverence. 


PERSUASIVE   DISCOURSE.  181 

0  masters !  if  I  were  dispos'd  to  stir 

Your  hearts  and  luinds  to  mutiny  and  rage, 

1  should  do  Brutus  wrong,  and  Cassius  wrong, 
Who,  you  all  know,  are  honourable  men : 

I  will  not  do  them  wrong ;  I  rather  choose 
To  wrong  the  dead,  to  wrong  myself,  and  you, 
Than  I  will  wrong  such  honourable  men. 
But  here's  a  parchment  with  the  seal  of  Caesar, 
I  found  it  in  his  closet ;  'tis  his  will : 
Let  but  the  commons  hear  this  testament, 
(Which,  pardon  me,  I  do  not  mean  to  read,) 
And  they  would  go  and  kiss  dead  Caesar's  wounds, 
And  dip  their  napkins  in  his  sacred  blood ; 
Yea,  beg  a  hrair  of  him  for  memory. 
And,  dying,  mention  it  within  their  wills. 
Bequeathing  it,  as  a  rich  legacy, 
Unto  their  issue. 

4  Cit.     We'll  hear  the  will :  read  it,  Mark  Antony. 

Citizens.     The  will,  the  will !  we  will  hear  Caesar's  will. 

Ant.     Have  patience,  gentle  friends,  I  must  not  read  it; 
It  is  not  meet  you  know  how  Caesar  loved  you. 
You  are  not  wood,  you  are  not  stones,  but  men ; 
And,  being  men,  hearing  the  will  of  Caesar, 
It  will  inflame  you,  it  will  make  you  mad  : 
'Tis  good  you  know  not  that  you  are  his  heirs ; 
For  if  you  should,  O,  what  would  come  of  it ! 

4  Cit.     Read  the  will ;  we'll  hear  it,  Antony  ; 
You  shall  read  us  the  will ;  Caesar's  will. 

Ant.     Will  you  be  patient?     Will  you  stay  a  while? 
I  have  o'ershot  myself  to  tell  you  of  it : 
I  fear  I  wrong  the  honourable  men. 
Whose  daggers  have  stabb'd  Caesar ;  I  do  fear  it. 

4  Cit.     They  were  traitors  :  honourable  men  ! 

Citizens.     The  will !  the  testament ! 

2  Cit.    They  were  villains,  murderers  :  the  will !  read  the  will. 

Ant.    You  will  compel  me,  then,  to  read  the  will  ? 
Then  make  a  ring  about  the  corse  of  Caesar, 
And  let  me  show  you  him  that  made  the  will. 
Shall  I  descend?  and  will  you  give  me  leave? 


182  STUDIES    IN   ENGLISH   COMroSITION. 

Citizens.     Come  down. 

2  Cit.     Descend.  [Antony  comes  down. 

3  Cit.     You  shall  have  leave. 

4  Cit.     A  ring- ;  stand  round. 

1  Cit.     Stand  from  the  hcarso,  stand  from  the  body. 

2  Cit.     Room  for  Antony,  most  noble  Antony! 
Ant.     Nay,  press  not  so  upon  me  ;  stand  far  off. 
Citizens.     Stand  back ;  room  :  bear  back. 

Ant.     If  you  have  tears,  pi-epare  to  shed  them  now. 
You  all  do  know  this  mantle  :  I  remember 
The  first  time  ever  Caesar  put  it  on ; 
'Twas  on  a  summer's  evening,  in  his  tent, 
That  day  he  overcame  the  Nervii :  — 
Look,  in  this  place,  ran  Cassius'  dagger  through : 
See  what  a  rent  the  envious  Casca  made  : 
Through  this  the  well-beloved  Brutus  stabb'd 
And,  as  he  pluck'd  his  cursed  steel  away, 
Mark  how  the  blood  of  Ctesar  foUow'd  it, 
As  rushing  out  of  doors,  to  be  resolv'd 
If  Brutus  so  unkindly  knock'd,  or  no ; 
For  Brutus,  as  yoii  know,  was  Caesar's  angel : 
.    Judge,  O  you  gods,  how  dearly  Caesar  lov'd  him. 
This  was  the  most  unkindest  cut  of  all ; 
For  when  the  noble  Caesar  saw  him  stab, 
Ingratitude,  more  strong  than  traitors'  arms, 
Quite  vanquish'd  him :  then  burst  his  mighty  heart, 
And,  in  his  mantle  muffling  up  his  face. 
Even  at  the  base  of  Pompey's  statue, 
Which  all  the  while  ran  blood,  great  Caesar  fell. 
O,  what  a  fall  was  there,  my  countrymen! 
Then  I,  and  you,  and  all  of  us  fell  down. 
Whilst  bloody  treason  flourish'd  over  us. 
O,  now  you  weep ;  and,  I  perceive,  you  feel 
The  dint  of  pity  :  these  are  gracious  drops.  ' 
Kind  souls,  what,  weep  you  when  you  but  behold 
Our  C;esar's  vesture  wounded?     Look  you  here. 
Here  is  himself,  marr'd,  as  you  see,  with  traitors. 

1  Cit.     O  piteous  spectacle  ! 

2  Cit.     O  noble  Ca?sar  ! 


PERSUASIVE   DISCOUESE,  183 

3  Cit.     O  woful  day ! 

4  Cit.     O  traitors,  villains ! 

1  Cit.     O  most  bloody  sight ! 

2  Cit.     We  will  be  revenged:  revenge,  —  about,  —  seek, — 
burn,  —  fire,  —  kill,  —  slay,  —  let  not  a  traitor  live. 

Ant.     Stay,  countrymen. 

1  Cit.     Peace  there !  hear  the  noble  Antony. 

2  Cit.    We'll  hear  him,  we'll  follow  him,  we'll  die  with  him. 

Feeling  that  he  has  won  his  hearers,  he  ventures  upon 
a  slight  appeal  to  their  pity,  but  stops  himself  by  saying 
that  to  do  so  would  be  to  do  Brutus  wrong,  and  that 
he  will  not  do' him  wrong,  he  will  rather  wrong  Caesar. 
Then  he  plays  upon  their  curiosity  by  telling  of  Ctesar's 
will,  which  he  does  not  intend  to  read,  but  if  they 
only  knew  what  was  in  it !  He  gets  the  answer  that 
he  expected,  for  they  cry  out  at  once  that  he  shall  read 
it.  This  gives  him  opportunity  to  make  that  answer 
which  is  a  famous  example  of  strength  gained  by  using 
particular  in  place  of  general  terms,  — 

I  fear  I  wrong  the  honourable  men 
Whose  daggers  have  stabbed  Caesar. 

Then  comes  an  appeal  to  the  feeling  of  the  popu- 
lace, with  an  especial  blow  at  Brutus  as  guilty  of  the 
basest  ingratitude.  Shakespeare  here  writes  one  of 
his  double  superlatives,  of  which  he  is  so  fond.  The 
climax  comes  when,  after  having  shown  the  garments, 
Antony  shows  the  body  of  Caesar.  This  is  the  point 
at  which  he  has  been  aiming  from  the  first;  but  he 
did  not  wish  to  show  the  body  until  he  was  sure  it 
would  be  received  witli  sympathy.  The  result  did  not 
disapf)oint  him,  for  the  citizens  cry,  burn!  kill!  daij ! 
the  conspirators. 


184  STUDIES    IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

With  wonderful  skill  he  continues :  — 

Ant.     Good  friends,  sweet  friends,  let  nu;  not  stir  you  up 
To  such  a  sudden  flood  of  mutiny. 
They  that  have  done  this  deed  are  honourable ; 
What  private  griefs  they  have,  alas,  I  know  not. 
That  made  them  do  it ;  they  are  wise  and  honourable. 
And  will,  no  doubt,  with  reasons  answer  you. 
I  come  not,  friends,  to  steal  away  your  hearts : 
I  am  no  orator,  as  Brutus  is ; 
But,  as  you  know  me  all,  a  plain,  blunt  man, 
That  love  my  friend ;   and  that  they  know  full  well 
That  gave  me  public  leave  to  speak  of  him : 
For  I  have  neither  wit,  nor  words,  nor  worth. 
Action,  nor  utterance,  nor  the  power  of  speech, 
To  stir  men's  blood  :  I  only  speak  right  on  : 
I  tell  you  that  which  you  yourselves  do  know ; 
Show  you  sweet  Caesar's  wounds,  poor,  poor  dumb  mouths. 
And  bid  them  speak  for  me  :  but  were  I  Brutus, 
And  Brutus  Antony,  there  were  an  Antony 
Would  ruffle  up  your  spirits,  and  put  a  tongue 
In  every  wound  of  C»sar,  that  should  move 
The  stones  of  Rome  to  rise  and  mutiny. 

Citizens.     We'll  mutiny. 

1  Cit.     We'll  burn  the  house  of  Brutus. 

3  Cit.     Away,  then  !  come,  seek  the  conspirators. 

Ant.     Yet  hear  me,  countrymen;  yet  hear  me  speak. 

Citizens.     Peace,  ho !    Hear  Antony,  most  noble  Antony. 

Ant.     Why,  friends,  you  go  to  do  you  know  not  what : 
W^herein  hath  Cassar  thus  deserv'd  your  loves? 
Alas,  you  know  not ;  I  must  tell  you,  then  : 
You  have  forgot  the  will  I  told  you  of. 

Citizens.     Most  true ;  the  will :  let's  stay  and  hear  the  will. 

Ant.     Here  is  the  will,  and  under  Caesar's  seal : 
To  every  Roman  citizen  he  gives. 
To  every  several  man,  seventy-five  drachmas. 

2  Cit.     Most  noble  Csesar !  we'll  revenge  his  death. 

3  Cit.     O  royal  Csesar  ! 

Ant.     Hear  me  with  patience. 


PERSUASIVE   DISCOURSE.  185 

Citizens.     Peace,  ho ! 

Ant.     Moreover,  he  hath  left  you  all  his  walks, 
His  private  arbours,  and  new-planted  orchards. 
On  this  side  Tibei- ;  he  hath  left  them  you, 
And  to  your  heirs  for  evei-,  common  pleasures. 
To  walk  abroad,  and  recreate  yourselves. 
Here  was  a  Caesar  !  when  comes  such  another? 

1  Cit.     Never,  never !     Come,  away,  away ! 
We'll  burn  his  body  in  the  holy  place. 

And  with  tlie  brands  fire  the  traitors'  houses. 
Take  up  the  body. 

2  Cit.     Go  fetch  fire. 

3  Cit.     Pluck  down  benches. 

4  Cit.     Pluck  down  forms,  windows,  anything. 

Exeunt  Citizens,  with  the  body. 
Ant.     Now  let  it  work  :  mischief,  thou  art  afoot. 
Take  thou  what  course  thou  wilt ! 

He  does  not  admit  that  he  has  aroused  this  feeling ; 
indeed,  he  pretends  to  wish  to  calm  it:  but  lest  he 
should  be  too  successful,  he  reminds  the  people  that  he 
has  not  yet  read  the  will.  When  they  hear  that  they 
are  Caesar's  heirs  their  rage  is  ungovernable,  and  Antony 
descends  from  the  pulpit,  feeling  tliat  his  work  is  done. 
The  only  hint  we  get  of  his  satisfaction  over  the  result 
is  found  in  the  soliloquy  beginning  "  Now  let  it  work," 
and  the  grim  reply  to  a  servant  who  announced  that 
Brutus  and  Cassius  had  fled  from  Rome,  — 

Belike  they  had  some  notice  of  the  people 
How  1  had  moved  them. 

Observe  that  in  this  example  there  are  but  three 
arguments.  All  the  rest  consists  of  appeals  to  the 
emotions,  especially  the  feelings  of  pity  and  gratitude, 
as  well  as  national  pride. 


186  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 


LESSON  LXXIV.- EXAMPLES  OP  PERSUASIVE  DISOOUESE. 

Each  pupil  should  analyze  one  or  more  of  the  fol- 
lowhig  examples.  Most  of  them  can  be  found  in  the 
different  school  readers.  In  the  analysis  note  which 
one  of  the  two  elements  of  persuasion  —  exhortation  or 
argument  —  appears  most  frequently.  Observe  if  these 
are  separate  or  connningled.  Note  the  figures  of 
rhetoric  —  particularly  climax,  antithesis,  and  allusions. 
State  the  arguments  in  their  simplest  form,  in  order 
that  you  may  know  their  real  value. 

An  Appeal  to  Arms.     Patrick  Henry. 

This  speech  was  delivered  in  the  Virginia  Convention  of  March, 
1775,  ill  support  of  the  resolution :  That  the  colony  be  immediately 
put  in  a  state  of  defence.  The  speaker  divides  the  hearers  whom 
he  wishes  to  persuade  into  two  classes,  —  the  hopeful  and  the  timid. 
He  addresses  the  former  class  first.  He  desires  to  win  them.  How 
does  he  do  it?  Note  that  his  arguments  are  presented  in  the  form 
of  questions  which  appeal  to  his  hearers'  knowledge  of  the  facts. 
He  compels  them  to  draw  his  conclusions  and  that,  too,  without 
any  loss  of  their  own  self-esteem. 

Observe  the  climax  which  he  builds  up  in  the  passage  beginning, 
"We  have  petitioned,"  and  also  the  strength  of  his  final  appeal  to 
these  hopeful  associates  beginning,  "  If  we  wish  to  be  free."  This 
is  a  fine  example  of  a  periodic  sentence. 

Then  he  addresses  the  ,timid  members,  and  repeats  their  one 
argument  that  the  colonies  are  too  weak  to  resist  Great  Britain. 
Again  he  questions ;  again  his  hearers  must  reply  as  he  desires. 
His  final  appeal  is  to  three  feelings,  which  are  among  the  strongest 
in  the  human  breast, — confidence  in  God's  care,  the  necessity  which 
every  honorable  man  feels,  of  standing  by  his  friends  who  are  in 
danger,  and  the  desire  for  liberty.  "  Our  brethren  are  already  in 
the  field"  refers  to  a  Committee  of  Safety  appointed  by  the  Massa- 
chusetts Assembly  to  muster  the  minute  men  and  militia.  The  last 
paragraph  is  an  excellent  example  of  balanced  sentences. 


PERSUASIVE   DISCOURSE.  187 

Rienzi's  Address  to  the  Romans.    Mary  R.  Mitford. 

This  selection  is  taken  from  the  Drama  of  Rienzi.  It  consists 
wholly  of  an  appeal  to  the  feelings.  Observe  the  opening  words 
as  a  rare  example  of  strength  of  style.  What  makes  it  strong? 
What  pi'inciple  of  persuasion  is  followed  in  the  body  of  the 
address  ?  "  Struck  —  struck  like  a  dog."  What  effect  does  it  have 
to  repeat  the  word  struck  ?  How  would  such  a  speech  be  likely  to 
aifect  a  Roman  audience?  What  was  Rienzi's  object  in  appealing 
to  the  ancient  glories  of  Rome  ? 

Supposed  Speech  of  John  Adams.    Daniel  Webster. 

A  persuasive  speech  delivered  long  after  the  events  to  which  it 
refers,  and  assumed  to  be  spoken  by  a  person  other  than  the 
author,  would  naturally  consist  of  arguments  rather  than  exhorta- 
tion. Put  into  simple  form  the  question  that  Mr.  Adams  is  sup- 
posed to  be  discussing.  Select  and  arrange  in  order  the  arguments 
by  which  he  sustains  it.  Note  w^hat  principles  of  persuasion  he 
applies. 

Speech  of  Paul  before  Agrippa.    Acts  xxv.,  xxvi. 

Chapter  xxv.  explains  the  circumstances  under  which  the  speech 
was  delivered.  It  opens  with  a  compliment  to  the  king  —  what 
principle  of  persuasion  is  that  ?  Observe  how  clearly  the  question 
at  issue  is  stated.  In  what  way  does  the  narration  of  the  circum- 
stances of  the  vision  become  an  argument?  What  effect  did 
Paul's  speech  have  upon  Festus  ?  Observe  Paul's  courteous  reply 
to  Festus  and  his  instant  appeal  to  the  king.  The  effect  of  all 
this  upon  the  king. 

The  First  Oration  of  Cicero  against  Catiline.     De- 
livered in  the  Roman  Senate. 

Observe  that  Cicero  had  but  one  object  in  the  entire  oration, 
and  that  was  to  drive  Catiline  from  the  city.  To  accomplish  this, 
he  used  both  denunciation  and  argument.  Arrange  the  arguments 
in  order  —  state  them  in  their  simplest  form.  Decide  whether  the 
final  appeal  to  the  senators  was  intended  for  them  or  for  Catiline. 
What  effect  did  this  orati(ju  liave  upon  Catiline? 


188  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

LESSON    LXXV.  —  STRUCTURE    OF    PERSUASIVE    DIS- 
COURSE. 

Alihoiigli  most  of  the  persuasion  used  by  all  persons 
is  absolutely  witliout  form,  yet  in  any  formal  discourse 
a  certain  arrangement  of  parts  is  desirable,  and  the 
simplest  of  these  is  the  division  into  Introduction,  Body, 
Conclusion. 

Introduction.  —  The  introduction  must  not  only  in- 
troduce the  subject  to  be  discussed,  it  must  also  intro- 
duce the  speaker  to  his  hearers,  and  it  should  do  both 
in  a  pleasing  manner. 

When  the  nature  of  the  subject  will  admit  of  it,  a 
pleasant  anecdote,  if  appropriate  in  time  and  place,  or 
a  well-turned  compliment,  will  do  much  to  establish 
pleasant  relations. 

Finally,  the  question  at  issue  should  be  stated,  defined 
if  necessary,  and  the  position  of  the  other  side  clearly 
and  honestly  put.  This  should  be  done  with  courtesy, 
as  nothing  is  gained  by  unprovoked  rudeness.  It  should 
be  done  with  perfect  honesty,  as  nothing  harms  a  speaker 
more  than  unfairness.  Dishonesty  may  win  once  or  twice, 
but  in  the  long  run  it  does  harm.  Honesty  is  the  best 
policy  here  as  in  other  relations  of  life. 

Body  of  the  Discourse.  —  This  is  the  place  for  your 
real  arguments.  It  is  well  to  answer  your  opponent's 
objections  at  first,  although  sometimes  that  is  not  done 
until  after  your  own  arguments  are  presented.  Empha- 
size your  arguments  by  anecdote,  illustration,  and  figures 
of  rhetoric.  Take  care  to  put  what  you  have  to  say 
clearly  and  strongly.  Do  not  disregard  the  rules  for 
those  qualities  of  style. 


PERSUASIVE   DISCOURSE.  189 

Appeals  to  the  feelings  may  go  hand  in  hand  with 
appeals  to  the  reason,  but  the  more  formal  Avay  is  to 
leave  exhortation  until  the  speaker  reaches  the  con- 
clusion. 

Conclusion.  —  This  should  contain  a  brief,  strong- 
summary  of  what  you  think  you  have  disproved  and 
what  you  think  you  have  proved.  Here  is  the  place 
for  a  final  appeal  to  the  feelings  of  your  audience. 
Make  as  strong,  graceful,  and  fitting  conclusion  as  is 
in  your  power. 


LESSOK  LXXVL  — LIST   OF   SUBJECTS  FOE  FEESUASIVE 

DISCOURSE. 
Prohibition. 

Assume  to  be  speaking  before  a  state  legislature  —  take  the  side 
upon  which  are  your  convictions,  and  make  the  best  persuasive 
speech  that  you  can.  State  all  the  arguments  in  its  favor  —  state 
all  the  arguments  opposed.  The  affirmative  has  greater  resources 
for  exhortation  than  the  negative.  Do  not  assume  that  your  oppo- 
nent is  wanting  in  moral  character  because  he  does  not  agree  with 
you.  That  is  a  common  mistake  with  speakers  in  favor  of  prohi- 
bition. 

Capital  Punishment. 

Object  of  punishment  twofold  —  reform  of  evil-doer  and  pro- 
tection of  society.  Capital  punishment  protects  society  only.  The 
historical  argument  may  be  met  by  the  fact  that  all  punishiiients 
are  now  lighter  than  formerly.  Juries  may  be  unwilling  to  find  a 
prisoner  guilty  if  capital  punishment  is  to  be  inflicted.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  may  be  urged  that  capital  punishment  is  the  only 
kind  that  will  deter  the  most  daring  villains.  Evil  results  of 
public  executions.  Results  in  various  states  wliich  have  abolished 
the  death  penalty.  Assume  that  you  are  speaking  before  a  ])ublic 
meeting. 


190  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Immigration. 

Should  immigration  into  the  United  States  be  restricted?  Char- 
acter of  immigrants  —  value  to  the  country  of  their  labor  — 
Chinese  immigration  —  advantages  of  further  immigration — dis- 
advantages.    If  restricted,  in  what  way? 

Pavements :  stone,  wood,  asphalt. 

Many  towns  and  cities  are  in  continual  turmoil  over  the  kind  of 
pavement  that  shall  be  used  on  the  streets.  Assume  that  you  are 
speaking  before  a  counnitlee  having  the  matter  in  charge,  and  urge 
the  adoption  of  the  kind  j'ou  prefer. 

Light  for  Cities  and  Towns :  gas  or  electric. 

Urge  the  adoption  of  the  kind  you  prefer,  giving  your  reasons. 
Consider  the  character  of  the  light,  the  expense,  etc. 

The  Value  of  the  Study  of  Latin. 

Try  to  persuade  some  boy  or  girl,  who  does  not  wish  to  study 
Latin,  of  its  desirability.  Give  the  different  arguments  in  its 
favor.  Then  appeal  to  the  desire  for  self -improvement  —  desire  to 
equal  one's  companions,  etc. 

The  Value  of  the  Study  of  Science. 

Try  to  persuade  a  board  of  education  to  make  provision  for 
the  establishment  of  a  physical  or  chemical  laboratory  in  its  high 
school.  Such  an  argument  should  have  introduction,  body,  conclu- 
sion. You  must  aim  to  prove  that  the  benefits  to  be  secured  by 
tile  laboratory  offset  the  additional  expense. 

Manual  Training :  Shall  it  be  introduced  into  city 
schools  ?  s 

Address  a  body  of  citizens  and  tax-payers. 

Compulsory  Education :    Is  it  desirable  or  neces- 
sary ? 


PERSUASIVE   DISCOURSE.  191 

Napoleon  Bonaparte  :  Was  his  career  a  benefit  or 
an  injury  to  Europe  ? 

Tlie  Execution  of  Mary  Stuart :  Was  it  justified  ? 

The  Presidential   Term  of    Ofhce :    Should   it   be 
lengthened  ? 

Protection  vs.  Free  Trade. 

Argument  for  Protection  :  Define  protection.  Theory  of  protec- 
tion. Needs  of  infant  industries.  Tariff  protects  the  workingnian. 
Produces  diversity  of  industries.     Makes  a  country  independent. 

Argument  against  Protection  :  Can  be  no  international  trade 
unless  foreign  goods  are  imported.  Capital  forced  out  of  one 
industry  would  find  place  in  another.  Not  tariff  keeps  wages 
high,  but  the  resources  of  the  country.  Workingmen  are  not 
protected  unless  the  immigration  of  workingmen  is  prohibited. 

Note.  —  Every  community  has  local  questions  which  will  be 
more  interesting  to  its  pupils  than  anything  suggested  here.  When 
these  questions  are  not  personal,  they  make  the  very  best  kind  for 
discussion.  It  is  useless  to  write  upon  a  subject  in  which  one  has 
no  interest,  for  in  persuasion  interest  is  essential  to  success. 

SUGGESTIONS    TO    THE   WRITER. 

It  is  well  sometimes  to  put  the  conclusion  of  a  single  argument 
in  the  form  of  a  question  as  Antony  does  when  he  asks,  "  Did 
this  in  Caesar  seem  ambitious?"  To  succeed  in  argument  one  must 
have  the  facts.  Choice  words,  correct  language,  fine  style,  are  all 
very  well,  but  avail  little  unless  the  facts  are  at  hand. 

Never  forget  the  value  of  an  anecdote  or  a  comparison  to  give 
point  to  an  argument. 

A  speaker  should  always  keep  his  temper.  To  lose  self-control 
gives  one's  opponents  great  advantage. 


192  STUDIES   IN    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 


CHAPTER   XX. 
PUBLIC  SPEAKING. 

The  demands  of  modern  life  and  society  frequently 
compel  persons  to  speak  in  public  who  are  really  unwill- 
ing to  do  so.  It  may  be  to  further  a  social  reform ;  it 
may  be  to  promote  some  measure  in  which  the  interests 
of  an  entire  community  are  involved ;  it  may  be  to 
defend  the  innocent;  the  causes  are  manifold  which 
combine  to  push  unwilling  men  and  women  to  their 
feet  and  force  them  out  of  the  fulness  of  their  hearts 
and  for  the  sake  of  their  cause  to  speak.  Since  this  is 
the  case,  the  statement  of  a  few  of  the  principles  which 
govern  all  public  addresses  is  not  out  of  place,  and 
practise  in  such  speaking  should  be  given  to  advanced 
pupils. 


LESSON    LXXVIL  —  PEINOIPLES    GOVERNING    PUBLIC 

SPEAKING. 

A  speaker  should  strive  to  stand  still.  All  nervous 
movements  of  hands  or  feet  should  be  controlled. 
Nothino-  shows  embarrassment  like  aimless  motion. 

Never  rise  to  speak  unless  you  are  certain  you  have 
voice  enough  to  carry  what  you  wish  to  say  to  every 
one  among  your  hearers.  In  ordinary  auditoriums  this 
requires  neither  a  very  loud  voice  nor  a  very  strong 
one ;    but  it  does  require   good  quality   of   tone  with 


<v 


PUBLIC   SPEAKING.  193 

clear  and  slow  enunciation.  It  is  quite  as  inappropriate 
to  speak  low  when  one  should  speak  loud,  as  to  speak 
loud  when  one  should  speak  low. 

Unless  you  have  something  clearly  in  mind,  do  not 
attempt  to  say  anything.  Nothing  tries  the  temper 
and  patience  of  an  audience  more  than  to  attempt  to 
follow  a  speaker  who  does  not  clearly  know  what  he 
wishes  to  say.  When  you  have  made  your  point  clearly, 
stop.  Many  a  speaker  spoils  the  effect  of  his  words  by 
talking  too  long. 

It  is  best  even  for  an  extempore  speaker  to  have 
in  mind  an  orderly  succession  of  topics,  and  here  and 
there  entire  sentences  in  memory,  in  order  that  he  may 
not  wander  from  his  subject,  weary  his  hearers,  and  so 
defeat  his  own  aims. 

In  an  address  which  has  been  committed  to  memory, 
or  even  in  one  which  is  read,  the  speaker  should  always 
leave  a  few  places  where  extempore  and  unpremeditated 
remarks  may  be  made.  Such  remarks  will  often  hold 
or  regain  the  flagging  attention  of  his  audience. 

No  public  speaking  is  successful  unless  it  has  held 
the  attention  of  tlie  hearers.  Whatever  other  excel- 
lences it  may  have  had,  failing  of  this,  it  has  failed 
of  all. 

The  best  sentences  for  public  speeches  are  short  sen- 
tences mingled  with  a  few  long  ones.  Relative  clauses 
should  clearly  show  to  what  they  refer.  Statements 
put  interrogatively  are  effective.  Everything  should 
be  sacrificed  to  clearness  of  style.  First  of  all,  the  audi- 
ence must  understand  what  is  meant. 

Anecdotes,  figures  of  rhetoric,  apt  quotations,  are  all 
valuable  in  an  address  to  give  point  to  the  thought,  to 
make  a  statement  clear.     But  a  speaker  should  avoid 


194  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

filling  Ills  address  with  stories  simply  to  amuse  his 
hearers,  for  he  soon  becomes  noted  lor  his  stories,  and 
not  for  his  ideas. 

A  speaker  should  never  rise  to  an  impassioned  style 
unless  he  can  take  his  audience  with  him.  Nothing 
makes  a  speaker  more  ridiculous  than  to  be  expressing 
strong-  emotion  which  his  hearers  do  not  share. 

Every  quality  of  style,  all  the  resources  of  memory, 
all  the  acquired  knowledge  of  the  individual,  all  the 
experiences  of  life,  are  not  too  much  to  equip  a  person 
for  a  successful  public  speaker.  A  truly  fine  oration 
taxes  every  resource  of  the  human  mind.  An  orator 
passes  from  narration  to  description,  from  anecdote  to 
argument,  makes  a  point  by  an  allusion,  fixes  his  thought 
in  the  minds  of  his  hearers  by  a  metaphor,  recalls  atten- 
tion by  a  picturesque  description,  wins  the  good-will  of 
his  audience  by  a  compliment.  He  never  allows  himself 
to  become  dull,  yet  he  should  be  profound;  should  enter- 
tain, but  not  simply  amuse  ;  should  instruct,  but  should 
never  become  pedantic  or  dogmatic.  A  finished  oration 
is  the  very  flower  of  literature. 


LESSON  LXXVIII.— STUDY  OP  SELECTIONS  PROM  FAMOUS 

ORATIONS. 

The  number  of  great  orators  in  any  age  or  any  coun- 
try has  not  been  large.  A  few  well-known  names  have 
come  down  to  us  from  antiquity,  as  Demosthenes, 
^schines,  and  Cicero. 

In  modern  times  we  have  Burke  and  Pitt  in  Eng- 
land ;  Patrick  Henry,  John  Quincy  Adams,  and  Daniel 
Webster  in  America. 


^ 


PUBLIC    SPEAKING.  195 

Below  the  greatest  are  many  names.  Such  in  this 
country  are  Thomas  Corwin,  Henry  Chxy,  John  C.  Cal- 
houn, Henry  Ward  Beecher,  Edward  Everett,  and 
Charles  Sumner. 

EXERCISE  I. SELECTIONS   FROM  WEBSTEIl's   ORATIONS. 

The  following  is  the  introduction  to  Weljster's  famous  speech 
at  the  trial  of  John  F.  Knapp,  who  was  indicted  for  murder  at 
Salem,  Mass.,  in  1830.  Mr.  Webster  appeared  to  assist  the  prose- 
cution. He  is  addressing  the  jury.  Observe  the  calm,  simple 
statement  of  the  case.  Notice  that  he  finds  it  quite  within  his 
province  to  compliment  both  judge  and  jury. 

I  very  much  regret,  gentlemen,  that  it  should  have 
been  thought  necessary  to  suggest  to  you  that  I  am 
brought  here  to  "hurry  you  against  the  law  and 
beyond  the  evidence."  I  hope  I  have  too  much  regard 
for  justice,  and  too  much  respect  for  my  own  character, 
to  attempt  either,  and  were  I  to  make  such  an  attempt, 
1  am  sure  that  in  this  court  nothing  can  be  carried 
against  the  law,  and  that  gentlemen  intelligent  and  just 
as  3'ou  are,  are  not  by  any  power  to  be  hurried  beyond 
the  evidence. 

Though  I  could  well  have  wished  to  shun  this  occa- 
sion, I  have  not  felt  at  liberty  to  withhold  my  profes- 
sional assistance,  when  it  is  supposed  that  I  might  be 
in  some  degree  useful,  in  investigating  and  discovering 
the  truth  respecting  this  most  extraordinary  murder. 

The  following  is  the  conclusion  of  a  speech  delivered  by  Mr. 
Webster  in  Washington,  at  the  dinner  given  upon  the  hundredth 
anniversary  of  the  birthday  of  George  Washington.  It  is  always 
affecting  to  every  one  to  think  of  what  will  happen  a  hundred 
years  from  now,  when  one's  self  and  all  whom  one  knows  will  be 
dead;  and  Mr.  Webster  with  great  tact  touched  that  chord  to  give 
pathos  and  feeling  to  his  closing  words.     The  last  sentence  is  a 


19G  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

long-  one,  but  it  is  clear,  easily  understood,  and  when  slowly  spoken, 
as  he  spoke  it,  must  have  been  most  impressive. 

A  Imiidred  years  hence  other  disciples  of  Washing- 
ton will  celebrate  his  birth  with  no  less  of  sincere 
admiration  than  we  now  commemorate  it.  When  they 
shall  meet  as  we  now  meet,  to  do  themselves  and  him 
that  honor,  so  snrely  as  they  shall  see  the  blue  summits 
of  his  native  mountains  rise  in  the  horizon,  so  surely  as 
they  shall  behold  the  river  on  whose  banks  he  lived, 
and  on  whose  banks  he  rests,  still  flowing  on  toward 
the  sea,  so  surely  may  they  see  as  we  now  see,  the  flag 
of  the  Union  floating  on  the  top  of  the  capitol ;  and 
then,  as  now,  may  the  sun  in  his  course  visit  no  land 
more  free,  more  happy,  more  lovely  than  this,  our  own 
country.     Gentlemen,  I  propose  — 

The  Memory  of  George  Washington. 

EXERCISE   II.  —  SELECTION   FROM    BURKE's    ORATION. 

The  following  selection  was  spoken  by  Edmund  Burke  in  the 
British  Parliament,  at  the  time  of  the  Revolutionary  War.  He 
opposed  the  coercive  policy  of  George  III.,  being  in  favor  of  con- 
ciliation. He  is  considered  one  of  the  greatest  of  English  orators. 
He  uses  both  long  and  short  sentences,  but  none  difficult  to  under- 
stand. Observe  that  all  his  ideas  go  in  pairs  as  it  were,  some- 
times in  more  than  two  forms,  but  usually  in  two :  Ex.  light  as 
air  —  strong  as  iron  —  cling,  grapple  —  cement  is  gone,  cohesion 
is  loosened  —  decay,  dissolution,  etc.,  etc.  Burke  inclines  to  the 
balanced  style  of  sentence;  he  also  uses  moderately  both  simile 
and  metaphor.  Rhetorical  figures  always  strengthen  an  oration 
if  not  used  to  excess. 

My  hold  of  the  Colonies  is  in  the  close  affection 
which  grows  from  common  names,  from  kindred  blood, 
from  similar  privileges,  and  equal  protection.     These 


PUBLIC    SPEAiaNG.  197 

are  ties  which,  though  light  as  air,  are  as  strong  as 
links  of  iron.  Let  the  Colonies  always  keep  the  idea 
of  their  civil  rights  associated  with  your  government; 
they  will  cling  and  grapple  to  you,  and  no  force  under 
heaven  will  be  strong  enough  to  tear  them  from  their 
allegiance.  But  let  it  be  once  understood  that  your 
government  ma}^  be  one  thing  and  their  privileges  an- 
other, that  these  two  things  may  exist  without  any 
mutual  relation,  the  cement  is  gone,  the  cohesion  is 
loosened,  and  everything  hastens  to  decay  and  dissolu- 
tion. As  long  as  you  have  the  wisdom  to  keep  the 
sovereign  authority  of  this  country  as  the  sanctuary  of 
liberty,  the  sacred  temple  consecrated  to  our  common 
faith,  wherever  the  chosen  race  and  sons  of  England 
worship  freedom,  they  will  turn  their  faces  toward  you. 
The  more  they  multiply,  the  more  friends  you  will 
have ;  the  more  ardently  they  love  liberty,  the  more 
perfect  will  be  their  obedience.  Slavery  they  can  have 
anywhere.  It  is  a-  weed  that  grows  in  ever}'-  soil.  But 
until  you  become  lost  to  all  feeling  of  your  true  interest 
and  your  natural  dignity,  freedom  they  can  have  from 
none  but  you. 

EXERCISE     III.  —  LANDING     OF     THE     PILGRIMS,     BY 
CHARLES    SUMNER. 

Charles  Sumner  was  a  classical  student  and  a  great  reader  of 
liistory.  He  saw  the  present  continually  on  the  background  of  the 
past.  This  characteristic  of  his  inind  shows  itself  in  this  oration. 
Observe  tlie  simple  statement  of  subject,  then  the  illustrations  of 
migrations  from  history  —  comparison  of  our  Pilgrims  with  the 
illustrious  of  the  earth  of  their  time  —  finally  the  peroration. 

The  landing  of  the  Fathers  on  Plymouth  Rock  on 
the  21st  of  December,  1620,  marks  the  beginning  of  a 


198  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

new  order  of  ages  by  which  the  whole  liumau  family 
will  be  elevated.  Then  and  there  was  the  great 
beginning. 

Throughout  all  time,  from  the  dawn  of  history,  men 
have  swarmed  to  found  new  homes  in  distant  lands. 
The  Tyrians,  skirting  Northern  Africa,  built  Carthage. 
The  Carthaginians  dotted  Spain,  and  even  the  distant 
coasts  of  Britain  with  colonies.  The  Greeks  stemmed 
Italy  and  vSicily  with  art-loving  settlements.  Rome  car- 
ried her  multitudinous  colonies  with  her  conquering 
eagles.  Saxons,  Danes,  and  Normans  violently  mingled 
with  the  original  Britons ;  and  in  more  modern  times, 
Venice,  Genoa,  Portugal,  Spain,  France,  and  England, 
all  sent  fortli  emigrants  to  people  foreign  shores.  But 
in  all  these  expeditions,  trade  or  war  was  the  impelling 
motive.  Too  often  commerce  and  conquest  moved  hand 
in  hand,  and  the  colony  was  reddened  with  blood. 

On  the  day  of  this  historic  landing,  the  sun  for  the 
first  time  in  his  course  looked  down  upon  a  different 
scene,  begun  and  continued  under  different  inspiration. 
Our  Pilgrims  were  few  and  poor.  And  yet  this  small 
body  of  people,  so  obscure  and  outcast  in  condition,  so 
slender  in  number  and  in  means,  so  entirely  unknown 
to  the  proud  and  great,  so  absolutely  without  name  in 
contemporary  records,  are  now  illustrious  beyond  the 
lot  of  men.  The  Mayflower  is  immortal  beyond  the 
Grecian  Argo,  or  the  stately  ship  of  any  victorious 
admiral. 

Confront  the  Pilgrims  with  those  great  in  rank  and 
power,  when  the  Mayflower,  with  her  company,  started 
forth  on  its  adventurous  voyage  —  the  crowned  sov- 
ereigns of  Europe,  whose  names  were  mentioned  with 
awe,  and  whose  countenances  are  handed  down  by  art, 


PUBLIC    SPEAKING.  199 

SO  that  at  this  day  they  are  as  visible  as  if  they  walked 
these  streets.  Now,  mark  the  contrast.  There  was  no 
artist  for  our  forefathers,  nor  are  their  countenances 
now  known  to  men,  but  far  above  that  of  any  powerful 
contemporaries  is  their  memory  saved. 

Pope,  emperor,  king,  sultan,  grand-duke !  what  are 
they  all  by  the  side  of  the  honorable  company  that 
landed  on  Plymouth  Rock?  Theirs,  indeed,  were  the 
ensigns  of  the  world  of  power ;  but  our  Pilgrims  had  in 
themselves  that  inborn  virtue  which  was  more  than  all 
else  beside,  and  their  landing  was  an  epoch  —  an  epoch 
not  only  never  {o  be  forgotten,  but  to  grow  in  grandeur 
as  the  world  appreciates  the  elements  of  the  true  great- 
ness of  mankind. 


LESSON  LXXIX.  —  LIST  OP  SUBJECTS  TOR  ORATIONS. 
American  Literature. 

Quote  from  Sidney  Smith,  "Who  reads  an  American  book?" 
Theological  character  of  early  American  writings  —  why?  Amer- 
ican historians  —  poets  —  essayists  —  novelists  —  humorists.  Does 
American  literature  differ  from  English?  Should  it  be  expected 
to  differ? 

The  Stars  and  Stripes. 

This  may  be  the  subject  of  a  patriotic  oration. 

The  Future  of  Africa. 

Africa,  the  last  continent  to  be  conquered  by  civilization. 
African  explorers  —  Livingston,  Galton  and  Andersson,  Dr.  Barth, 
Lieutenant  Burton,  last  and  greatest,  Henry  M.  Stanley.  Topo- 
graphical characteristics  of  the  continent.  Various  native  tribes. 
Adaptability  of  native  tribes  to  civilization.    Claims  of  Portuguese, 


200  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

French.  Germans,  and  English.    Congo  Free  State.    Africa,  the  last 
home  of  slavery.     The  promise  of  the  future. 

The  Wonders  of  Electricity. 

Read  A  Century  of  Electricity,  by  Thomas  W.  Mendenhall. 

The  Year  2000  a.d. 

Picture  the  advance  in  scientific  thought  —  modes  of  life  — 
political  and  economic  conditions. 

Parents,  Obey  Your  Children. 

A  humorous  oration  which  shall  set  forth  the  inconsistencies  of 
modern  life. 

Our  Transatlantic  Cousins. 

Treat  this  from  the  social  and  literary  side.  Compare  English 
and  Americans  in  speech,  habits,  thought,  manners,  dress,  etc. 

"American  accent"  —  how  does  it  differ  from  English?  Ameri 
canisms  in  speech  —  what  are  they?  Anglo-maniacs?  What  is 
meant  by  the  term  ?  What  do  we  mean  by  the  expression  "  in 
plain  English  "  ? 

The  Laying  of  the  Atlantic  Cable. 

Read  History  of  the  Telegraph,  by  Cyi'us  W.  Field. 

The  Flags  of  all  Nations. 

What  a  flag  is  —  what  it  means  —  various  colors  —  various 
symbols.     The  American  flag. 

Note.  —  These  are  but  few  of  the  many  subjects  available. 
In  point  of  fact,  orations  are  usually  produced  for  some  especial 
occasion  and  this  occasion  gives  the  subject.  Subjects  very  appro- 
priate to-day  may  be  very  stale  next  year.  This  makes  a  selec- 
tion of  permanent  subjects  for  public  speaking  unusually  difficult. 
Above  all  things,  the  subject  foi"  an  oration  must  be  fresh,  interest- 
ing, and  thoroughly  in  touch  with  the  feelings  of  the  hearers,  else 
it  is  a  failure. 


RULES   FOE,    USE   OF   CAPITAL   LETTERS.  201 


ADDENDA. 


The  following  Rules  for  the  Use  of  Capitals  and  Marks  of 
Punctuation,  together  with  the  Abbreviations  most  commonly 
used,  are  placed  here  for  convenient  reference. 

RULES  FOB  THE   USE  OF  CAPITAL  LETTERS. 

The  first  word  of  every  sentence  should  begin  with  a 
capital  letter. 

A  sentence  preceded  by  an  introductory  word  or  clause  such  as 
Resolved,  Be  it  enacted,  etc.,  begins  with  a  capital  notwithstanding 
the  introductory  word. 

The  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation,  of  an  important 
statement,  and  of  a  direct  question,  should  begin  with  a 
capital. 

The  principle  underlying  this  rule  is  that  the  subject-matter  of 
a  subordinate  clause  may  be  important  enough  to  overrule  its  posi- 
tion and  cause  it  to  be  treated  as  an  independent  sentence. 

Ex.    When  thou  saidst,  Seek  ye  my  face ;  my  heart  said  unto 
thee,  Thy  face,  Lord,  will  I  seek.  —  Bible. 
One  truth  is  clear:  Whatever  is,  is  right.  —  Pope. 
Ask  yourselves  this  question :  Are  you  doing  right  ? 

The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry  should  begin 

with  a  capital. 

Proper  nouns  should  begin  with  capital  letters. 

The  words  sti-eet,  road,  lake,  river,  mountain,  etc.,  should  begin 
with  capitals  when  used  in  connection  with  proper  names. 


202  STUDIES    IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Ex.    Crawford    Road,   Prospect   Street,    Lake   Erie,    Cuyahoga 
River,  Little  Mountain. 

North,  South,  East,  and  West  should  begin  with  capitals  when 
they  mean  sections  of  the  country  and  not  points  of  the  compass. 

Ex.   Chicago,  the  largest  city  of  the  West,  is  south  of  J^ake 
Michigan. 

The  names  of  the  days  of  the  week  and  of  the  months  of  the 
year  are  considered  proper  nouns.  Usage  with  regard  to  the  names 
of  the  seasons  is  variable. 

Words  of  family  relations,  sucli  as  father,  aunt,  cousin,  are  con- 
sidered proper  nouns  when  they  are  used  with  the  name  of  a 
person,  or  without  a  possessive  pronoun. 

Ex.    I  had  a  letter  from  Father  to-day,  and  one  from  Cousin 
Mary  yesterday. 
When  did  you  hear  from  your  mother  ? 

Common  nouns  become  proper  when  they  denote 
something  of  special  importance.  Great  latitude  of 
usage  is  now  allowed  in  this  respect. 

Ex.   Every  Poet,  be  his  outward  lot  what  it  may,  finds  himself 
born  in  tiie  midst  of  Prose.  —  Carlyle. 

Names  of  objects  personified  become  proper  nouns. 

Ex.  The  wary,  gray  strategist  Time, 

With  tlie  armies  of  Life,  lay  encamped,  —  Grief  and  Crime, 
Love  and  Faith,  —  in  the  darkness  unheeded. 

0%'.ien  Meredith. 

Words  derived  from  proper  names  should  begin  with 

capital  letters. 

Ex.    American,  Danish,  Bostonian,  Roman. 

When  such  words  by  long  usage  have  lost  their  association  with 
the  nouns  from  which  they  are  derived,  they  do  not  begin  with 
capitals. 

Ex.    China-ware. 


RULES    FOR    USE    OF    CAPITAL    LETTERS.  203 

All  names  of  God,  all  words  that  may  be  regarded  as 
titles  of  the  Deity,  should  begin  with  capitals. 

Ex.    Thou  Great  First  Cause,  least  understood, 
Who  all  my  sense  confined 
To  know  but  this,  that  Thou  art  good, 
And  that  myself  am  blind.  —  Pope. 

The  usage  with  regard  to  pronouns  referring  to  the  Deity  is 
variable.  The  rule  usually  given  is  that  they  should  begin  with  a 
capital  when  necessary  to  make  clear  their  antecedent,  otherwise  not. 

Ex.   O  Lord  and  Master  of  us  all ! 
Whate'er  our  name  or  sign, 
W'e  own  thy  sway,  we  hear  thy  call. 
We  test  our  lives  by  thine.  —  Wliittier. 

Titles  of  honor  or  office  used  alone  or  accompanied  by 
nouns  should  begin  with  capital  lettei-s. 

Ex.  The  royal  barge,  manned  with  Queen  Elizabeth's  watermen, 
lay  at  the  great  stairs.  —  ScoU. 

However,  when  the  title  is  used  informally,  the  capital  is  omitted. 

Ex.  "  I  pray  you,  my  dear  Walter,  let  us  take  the  boat  and 
return."  "  Not  till  I  see  the  queen  come  forth,"  returned 
the  youth,  composedly.  —  Scolt. 

All  words  in  the  written  titles  of  books,  essays,  etc., 
should  begin  with  capitals  except  articles,  prepositions, 
and  conjunctions.  The  first  word,  of  course,  has  a  cap- 
ital, whatever  it  may  be. 

There  are  two  ways  of  printing  titles  of  books  and  essays.  The 
entire  title  may  be  put  into  capitals,  which  is  the  usual  form  of 
book  titles.  The  titles  of  essays  on  the  title  page  of  magazines  and 
the  titles  of  books  in  Publishers'  advertisements  are  frequently 
printed  as  they  would  be  written. 

Ex.  The  title  page  of  the  North  American  Review  and  the  inner 
page  of  Harper's  Magazine. 

The  words  Zand  0  sliould  always  be  capitals. 


204  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

RULES  FOB  THE  MARKS  OF  PTJMCTVJ.TIOK. 

THE  COMMA. 

Words  or  phrases  in  the  same  construction,  forming  a 
series,  are  separated  from  each  other  by  commas. 

Ex.  Scrooge  was  his  sole  executor,  his  sole  administrator,  his 
sole  assign,  his  sole  residuary  legatee,  his  sole  friend, 
and  sole  mourner.  —  Dickens. 

The  use  of  tlie  comma  with  a  conjunction  in  the 
series  requires  attention.  The  best  usage  seems  to  be 
the  following :  ■ — • 

If  all  the  terms  of  the  series  are  connected  by  con- 
junctions, no  commas  are  required. 

If  only  the  last  two  words  are  connected  by  a  con- 
junction, a  comma  separates  each  term  of  the  series  just 
as  if  there  were  no  conjunction. 

Sometimes  adjectives  apparently  form  a  series  when  really  they 
do  not. 

Ex.  The  kind  old  man.  Observe  that  old  limits  man  and  kind 
limits  the  phrase  old  man ;  consequently  the  words  are 
not  in  the  same  construction,  and  no  comma  is  required. 

Co-ordinate  clauses  if  simple  in  construction  will  often 
form  a  series  and  should  be  separated  by  commas. 

A  word  or  phrase  in  apposition  should  be  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas. 

Ex.  Alcyone,  the  brightest  star  of  the  Pleiades,  is  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  our  vast  solar  system. 

If  one  of  the  terms  in  apposition  is  a  general  title,  the  comma 
should  be  omitted. 

Ex.    Thompson  the  poet  was  indolent. 


RULES  FOR   MARKS    OF   PUNCTUATION.  205 

A  title  or  degree,  following  the  name  of  a  person,  should  be 
separated  from  the  name  by  a  comma. 

Ex.    James  G.  Blaine,  Secretary  of  State. 

Words  and  phrases  in  the  absolute  case  by  direct 
address  should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sen- 
tence by  commas. 

Ex.   Cold  is  thy  brow,  my  son,  and  I  am  chill.  —  Willis. 

Frequently  as  a  mark  of  strong  emotion  the  exclamation  point 
is  used  in  place  of  the  comma. 

Ex.  And  the  king  was  much  moved,  and  went  up  to  the  cham- 
ber over  the  gate  and  wept ;  and  as  he  went,  thus  he 
said,  O  my  son  Absalom,  my  son,  my  son  Absalom  ! 
would  God  I  had  died  for  thee,  O  Absalom,  my  son,  my 
son !  —  Bible. 

When  the  absolute  case  occurs  with  the  participle,  the  entire 
phrase  should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

Ex.  The  appointed  day  having  come,  the  Declaration  was  taken 
up  and  debated  article  by  article.  —  Headley. 

Words  or  phrases  in  pairs,  and  words  or  phrases  con- 
trasted, should  be  separated  from  each  other  b}'  commas. 

Ex.   Sink  or  swim,  live  or  die,  survive  or  perish,  I  give  my  hand 
and  my  heart  to  this  vote.  —  Webster. 
We  live  in  deeds,  not  years ;  in  thoughts,  not  breaths ; 
Tn  feelings,  not  in  figures  on  a  dial.  —  Bailey. 

Any  word,  phrase,  or  clause  which  is  introduced  into 
the  body  of  a  sentence  is  set  off  from  the  rest  by  commas. 

Ex.   There  was,  as  usual,  a  crowd  of  folk  about  the  door,  but 
none  that  Rip  recollected. 
"My  very  dog,"  sighed  poor  Kip,  "has  forgotten  me." 

Irving. 
If  the  interrupting  matter  is  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  main 
sentence,  it  is  followed  by  a  comma. 

Ex.    In  fact,  he  declared  it  was  of  no  use  to  work  on  his  farm. 

Irving. 


206  STUDIES   IN    ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

Adjective  and  adverbial  phrases  and  clauses  are  sepa- 
rated from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas  when 
their  connection  is  not  close. 

XoTE.  —  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  punctuation  of  such  phrases 
and  clauses  must  be  learned  by  observation.  Usage  is  very  vari- 
able regarding  them,  for  the  reason  that  a  connection  which  seems 
close  to  one  writer  does  not  seem  so  to  another. 


THE  SEMICOLON  AND  THE  COLON. 

The  members  of  a  compound  or  complex  sentence 
when  not  closely  connected  in  sense  are  separated  by 
semicolons. 

Ex.  As  we  proceeded,  the  timid  approach  of  twilight  became 
more  perceptible ;  the  intense  blue  of  the  sky  began  to 
soften ;  the  smaller  stars,  like  little  children,  went  first 
to  rest ;  the  sister  beams  of  the  Pleiades  soon  melted 
together ;  but  the  bright  constellations  of  the  west  and 
north  remained  unchanged.  —  Everett. 

Frequently  the  mere  fact  that  commas  have  been  already  used 
in  the  clauses,  compels  the  use  of  semicolons  which  would  not 
otherwise  be  required. 

A  clause  added  to  a  sentence  already  complete  is 
usually  separated  by  a  semicolon,  sometimes  by  a  colon. 

Ex.    Apply  yourself  to  study ;  for  it  will  redound  to  your  credit. 

When  a  general  term  is  followed  by  an  enumeration 
of  particulars,  they  are  set  off  by,  — 

A  semicolon  when  the  particulars  are  merely  men- 
tioned ; 

A  colon  when  the  particulars  are  formally  introduced 
and  explained. 

A  direct  quotation  is  set  off  by,  — 

A  colon,  when  long  and  formal ; 


RULES   FOR   MARKS   OF    PUNCTUATION.  207 

A  semicolon,  when  long  but  informal ; 
A  comma,  when  short  and  informal. 

Ex.    Then  said  Mr.  Greatheart :  "  We  need  not  be  so  afraid  of 
this  valley,  for  there  is  nothing  to  hurt  us,  unless  we 
procure  it  ourselves."  —  Bunyan. 
"Oh!   that  flagon  —  that  wicked  flagon!"  thought  Rip; 
"  what  excuse  shall  I  make  to  Dame  Van  Winkle." 

Irving. 
"  I  wonder,"  said  Mr.  Lorry,  "  that  he  keeps  that  reminder 
of  his  sufferings  about  liim  !  "  —  Dickens. 

Much  laxity  of  usage  prevails  with  regard  to  this  rule. 

THE  PEEIOD. 

Declarative  and  imperative  sentences,  when  not  con- 
nected in  construction  with  wliat  follows,  are  closed  by 
periods. 

When  a  number  of  such  sentences  are  closely  connected  in  mean- 
ing, they  are  joined  into  a  compound  or  complex  sentence,  and  are 
punctuated  according  to  the  rules  already  given. 

A  period  should  be  placed  after  every  abbreviation. 

The  period  thus  used  is  part  of  the  abbreviation,  and,  except  at 
the  end  of  the  sentence,  the  point  required  by  the  construction 
should  be  used  after  it. 

Such  expressions  as  3d,  18th,  8mo,  are  not  abbreviations  and  do 
not  require  a  period  after  them. 

A  period  should  always  be  placed  after  the  Roman  numerals. 

THE  INTEEROGATION   POINT. 

The  interrogation  point  is  used  for  marking  all  ques- 
tions. When  the  question  consists  of  several  parts,  or 
when  several  questions  are  contained  in  one  sentence, 
there  is  some  difficulty  in  deciding  whether  there  shall 
be  one    or   more    interrogation   points.     The    principle 


208  STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 

is  that  if  one  answer  is  sufficient  for  all,  one  point 
is  enough ;  if  different  answers  are  required,  a  point 
should  be  placed  after  each  question. 

THE   EXCLAMATION  POINT. 

The  exclamation  point  is  placed  at  the  end  of  every 
sentence,  clause,  phrase,  or  word  intended  to   convey 


strong  emotion. 


THE  DASH. 


The  dash  is  used  to  mark  a  sudden  change  in  either 
the  sense  or  construction  of  a  sentence. 

Ex.    The  breast  of  the  Williamsburg  dam  has  burst ! 
The  basin  that  nourished  their  happy  homes 
Has  changed  to  a  demon  —  It  comes,  it  conies.  —  O'Reilly. 

The  dash  is  used  to  introduce  an  amplification  or 
explanation. 

When  thus  used  it  is  usually  preceded  by  comma,  semicolon,  or 
colon. 

Two  dashes  are  now  often  employed  instead  of  parentheses  to 
set  off  expressions,  independent  in  meaning,  which  are  introduced 
into  the  body  of  the  sentence. 

Ex.  Is  it  a  horse  — 

Hark  to  the  sound  of  his  hoofs,  they  say  — 

That  gallops  so  wildly  Williamsburg  way?  —  O'Reilly. 

QUOTATION    MAEKS. 

Every  direct  quotation  should  be  enclosed  in  quota- 
tion marks. 

A  quotation  which  is  included  within  another  should 
be  enclosed  by  single  quotation  marks. 


COMMON  ABBREVIATIONS. 


209 


COMMOJ{  ABBREVIATIONS. 


A.B.  Artium  Baccalaureus.  Bach- 
elor of  Arts. 

A.D.  Aiuio  Domini.  In  the  Year 
of  Our  Lord. 

Ad.  Lib.  Ad  libitum.  At  pleas- 
ure. 

iEt.     ^tatis.     Of  age ;  aged. 

Ala.     Alabama.  ' 

A.M.    Artium  Magister.    Master 

of  Arts.    Ante  Meridiem. 

Before  noon. 

Ariz.     Arizona. 

Ark.     Arkansas. 

A.U.C.  Anno  Urbis  CondiKe.  In 
the  Year  from  the  Building  of 
the  City  (Rome). 

B.A.     Bachelor  of  Arts. 

B.C.     Before  Christ. 

Cal.     California. 

Capt.     Captain. 

Cent.     A  hundred. 

Co.     Company ;  County. 

C.O.D.     Collect  on  delivery. 

Col.     Colonel ;  Colorado. 

Conn,  or  Ct.     Connecticut. 

Cor.  Sec.  Corresponding  Secre- 
tary. 

Cwt.     Hundredweight. 

D.C.     Di.strict  of  Columbia,. 

D.D.  Divinitatis  Doctor.  Doc- 
tor of  Divinity. 

Del.     Delaware. 

Do.     Ditto.     The  .same. 

Dr.     Doctor. 

E.E.     Errors  excepted. 


E.G.  or  e.g.  Exempli  Gratia.  For 
example. 

Esq.     Esquire. 

Etc.     Et  co&tera.    And  others. 

Fla.     Florida. 

Ga.     Georgia. 

Gen.     General. 

Gov.     Governor. 

H.M.     His  or  Her  Majesty. 

H.M.S.  His  or  Her  Majesty's 
Ship  or  Service. 

Hon.     Honorable. 

H.R.H.  His  or  Her  Royal  High- 
ness. 

la.     Iowa. 

Ibid.    Ibidem.   In  the  same  place. 

I.e.  or  i.e.     Id  est.     That  is. 

Id.     Idem.     The  same. 

I.H.S.  lesus  Ilominnm  Sulva- 
Ijir.    Jesus  the  Saviour  of  Men. 

111.     Illinois. 

Ind.     Indiana. 

Incog.     Incognito.     Unknown. 

Ind.  Ter.     Indian  Territory. 

I. N.R.I.  lesus  Nazarenus  Rex 
ludceorum.  Jesus  of  Naza- 
reth, King  of  the  Jews. 

lo.     Iowa. 

I.O.O.F.  Independent  Order  of 
Odd  Fellows. 

Kas.  or  Kan.     Kansas. 

Ky.     Kentucky. 

La.  or  Lou.     Louisiana. 

LL.D.  Legum  Doctor.  Doctor 
of  Laws. 


210 


STUDIES   IN   ENGLISH   COMPOSITION. 


M.     ^fcridien.     Mid-day. 

M.A.     Master  of  Arts. 

Mass.     Massachusetts. 

Maj.     Major. 

M.D.     Mi'dicimti  Doctor.     Doctor 

of  Medicine. 
Md.     Maryland. 
Me.     Maine. 
Messrs.     Gentli-men. 
Mich.     Michigan. 
Miss.     Mississippi. 
Mile.     Mademoiselle. 
Mo.     Missouri. 
Mont,  or  Mta.     Montana. 
Mr.     Mister. 
Mrs.      Mistress   (pronounced 

Misses). 
MS.  or  Ms.     Manuscript. 
MSS.  iir  Mss.     Manuscripts. 
N.B.     Nota  bene.     Mark  well. 
N.C.     North  Carolina. 
N.  Dak.     North  Dakota. 
Neb.     Nebraska. 
Nev.     Nevada. 
N.H.     New  Hampshire. 
N.J.     New  Jersey. 
N.  Mex.     New  Mexico. 
N.Y.     New  York. 
N.S.     New  Style  (after  1752). 
0.     Oliio. 

Ob.     Ohiit.     lie  or  she  died. 
Or.     Oregon. 
O.S.      Old    Style    (previous    to 

1752). 
Pa.  or  Penn.     Pennsylvania. 
Per  cent  or  per  cent.      By  the 

hundred. 


Ph.D.  Philosophice  Doctor.  Doc- 
tor oi  Philosophy. 

P.O.     Post  Office. 

pp.     Pages. 

P.P.C.  Pour  prendre  conge.  To 
take  leave. 

Prof.     Professor. 

Pro  tem.  Fro  tempore.  For  the 
time  being. 

Prox.  Proximo.  Next  or  the 
next  month. 

Q.E.D.  Qnod  erat  demonstran- 
dum. Which  was  to  be  de- 
monstrated. 

Rec.  Sec.    Kecording  Secretary. 

Rev.     Reverend. 

R.I.     Khode  Island. 

R.S.V.P.  or  R.s.v.p.  Repondez., 
s''il  voiis  plait.  Answer,  if  you 
please. 

S.C.     South  Carolina. 

S.  Dak.     South  Dakota. 

Tenn.     Tennessee. 

Tex.     Texas. 

U.S.A.   United  States  of  America. 

Va.     Virginia. 

Vt.     Vermont. 

Viz.  or  viz.  Videlicet.  Namely  ; 
to  wit. 

Wash.     Washington. 

Wis.     Wisconsin. 

W.  Va.     West  Virginia. 

Wyo.     Wyoming. 

X.     Christ. 

Xmas.     Christmas. 

Y.M.C.A. 

tian  Association. 


Young   Men's   Chris- 


NoTE.  —  The  abbreviations  for  the  States  are  copied  from  the  latest 
instructions  issued  by  the  Post  Office  Department.  Alaska,  Idaho, 
Utah,  and  Oklahoma  have  as  yet  no  authorized  abbreviations. 


^- 


-^ 


Allyti  Or'  Bacon,  Bos/on  and  Cldcago. 


Irviitgs  Sketch  Book. 

With  Notes 
By  Elmer  E.  Wentworth. 
I2mo,  cloth,  426  pages.  Price  60  cents 


This  is  the  cheapest  complete  edition  of  Irving's 
Sketch  Book  now  before  the  pubh'c.  It  is  strongly 
and  attractively  bound  in  cloth.  Paper  and  press- 
work  are  of  the  best.  The  annotation  is  designed 
not  to  supersede  but  to  stimulate  thought  on  the  part 
of  the  pupil,  and  to  make  him  better  able  to  read  with 
profit  and  enjoyment  other  literary  masterpieces. 

Prof.  William  Lyon  Phelps,  Yale  University,  A'eio 
Haven,  Conn. :  Please  accept  my  thanks  for  vour 
handsome  edition  of  the  Sketch  Book,  which  seems 
to  me  surprisingly  cheap  in  price  for  such  a  book. 

Prof.  Charles  F.  Eichardson,  Dartmouth  College: 
I  thank  you  for  sending  me  Mr.  Wentworth's  well- 
annotated  edition  of  Irving's  Sketch  Book,  a  pleas- 
ure to  the  eye  and  the  hand,  and  sure  to  aid  in  the 
enjoyment  of  an  American  classic. 

Dr.  C.  F.  P.  Bancroft,  Phillips  Andaver  Academy : 
I  thank  you  for  a  copy  of  the  Wentworth's  hand- 
some edition  of  the  Sketch  Book.  I  do  not  see 
how  teachers  can  resist  it. 

Prof.  0.  B.  Clark,  liifon  College,  Ripon,  Wis.: 
Permit  me  to  congratulate  you  on  the  beauty  of  the 
volume,  on  its  cheapness,  and  above  all  on  the 
scholarly  taste,  modest  reserve,  and  encouraging 
suggestiveness  of  the  notes.  Reading  and  study  are 
made  to  beget  reading  and  study,  and  the  appetite 
will  surely  grow  with  what  it  feeds  on. 


^ 


-^ 


-^ 


Allyn  &-=  Bacon,  Boston  and  Chicago. 

From  Milton  to  Tennyson. 

Masterpieces  of  English  Poetry,  selected  and  edited 
for  High  Schools. 

By  L.  DuPont  Syle,  M.A.  (  Yale), 

Instructor  in  English,  University  of  California. 

Ready  in  June,  1894. 


.^ 


In  this  work  the  editor  has  endeavored  to  bring 
together  within  the  compass  of  a  moderate-sized 
volume  as  much  narrative,  descriptive,  and  lyric 
verse  as  a  student  may  reasonably  be  required  to 
read  critically  for  entrance  to  college.  From  the 
the  eighteen  poets  represented,  only  such  master- 
pieces have  been  selected  as  are  within  the  range  of 
the  understanding  and  sympathy  ftf  the  high-school 
student.  Each  masterpiece  is  given  complete,  ex- 
cept, for  pedagogical  reasons,  in  the  cases  of 
Thomson,  Cowper,  Byron,  and   Browning. 

The  text  of  the  selections  will  occupy  about  three 
hundred  pages,  and  the  notes  about  one  hundred 
and  sixtv  pages. 

The  folhnving  poets  are  represented  : 

Milton,  Dryden,  Pope,  Thomson,  Johnson,  Gray, 
Goldsmith,  Cowper,  Burns,  Coleridge,  Byron, 
Keats,  Shelley,  Wordsworth,  Clough,  Matthew 
Arnold,  Browning,  Tennyson. 


British  and  American 
Orations. 


Edited  by  C  B.  Bradley, 
Of  the   University  of  California 


-'i< 


^ >il 


Ally II  (St"  Bacon,  Bosfon  and  Chicago. 

Paragraph'  Writing. 

By  F.  N.  Scott  and  J.  V.  Demiey. 

l2mo.    272  pages.    Price,  80  cents. 

The  principles  embodied  in  tliis  work  were  devel- 
oped and  put  in  practice  by  its  authors  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Micliigan  several  years  ago.  Its  aim  is  to 
make  the  paragrajih  the  basis  of  a  method  of  com- 
position and  to  present  all  the  important  facts  of 
rhetoric  in  their  application  to  it. 

In  Part  I.  the  nature  and  laws  of  the  paragraph 
are  presented ;  the  structure  and  function  of  the 
isolated  paragraph  are  discussed,  and  considerable 
space  is  devoted  to  related  paragraphs,  that  is,  those 
which  are  combined  into  essays. 

Part  II.  is  a  chapter  on  the  theory  of  the  paragraph 
intended  for  teachers  and  advanced  students. 

Part  III.  contains  copious  materials  for  class- 
room work,  .  .  .  selected  paragraphs,  suggestions  to 
teachers,  lists  of  subjects  for  compositions  (about 
two  thousand  in  all),  and  helpful  references  of  many 
kinds. 

Prof.  J.  M.  Hart,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N'.Y : 
You  are  to  be  congratulated  upon  having  such  a 
book.  .  .  .  The  style  of  the  writers  is  admirable  for 
clearness  and  correctness.  Although  reading  very 
closely,  I  do  not  discover  any  passages  where  the 
wording  (from  the  authors'  point  of  view)  should  be 
amended.  And  this  is  more,  infinitely  more,  than  I 
could  say  of  any  other  book  in  this  line.  .  .  .  They 
have  produced  an  uncommonly  sensible  text-book, 
.  .  .  For  college  work  it  will  be  hard  to  beat.  I  know 
of  no  other  book  at  all  comparable  to  it  for  Fresh- 
man drill. 


* cX. 


Allyn  &'  Bacon 


Boston. 


A  Drill  Book  in  English. 

>  o 

S  Compiled  by 

\  George  E.   Gay. 

\  i2mo,  Boards.  45  cents. 

This  book  is  designed  for  the  use  of  such  pupils  as 
have  previously  learned  the  substance  of  the  rules 
which  it  contains.  It  does  not  aim  to  give  all  the 
principles  of  the  language,  but  emphasizes  those  which 
are  most  frequently  violated.  It  will  be  warmly  wel- 
comed by  those  teachers  who  are  endeavoring  in  a 
practical  way  to  teach  their  pupils  the  use  of  correct 
English.  It  contains,  in  brief  form,  rules  for  spell- 
ing, punctuation,  capitalization,  and  the  more  impor- 
tant principles  of  grammar  and  rhetoric.  Abundant 
exercises  for  practice  are  given,  and  these  are  ar- 
ranged on  pages  with  wide  margin,  so  that  the  work 
of  correction  can  be  done  with  the  least  expenditure 
of  time  and  labor. 

J.  G.  Crosswell,  Principal  of  the  Brearley  School, 
New  York  City :  I  have  examined  Gay's  Drill  Book 
in  English,  and  have  ordered  it  at  once.  It  is  a  very 
valuable  addition  to  the  apparatus  of  the  teacher. 

L.  C.  Hull,  Laivrenceville  School,  N.J.  :  It  im- 
presses me  as  an  admirable  little  manual. 

Edwin  H.  Cutler,  Classical  School,  Newton,  Mass.  : 
There  is  great  occasion  in  our  schools  for  a  book  of 
this  kind;  and  I  am  satisfied  from  an  examination 
of  the  work  that  it  will  prove  highly  serviceable. 

Daniel  E.  Owen,  Thornton  Academy,  Saco,  Me.  : 
It  is  the  best  thing  in  its  line  that  I  have  ever  seen. 

A.  F.  Bechdolt,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Mankato, 
Minn. :  I  like  it  very  much ;  its  examples  are  well 
selected,  and  there  is  an  abundance  of  them. 


^- 


-* 


University  Of  California,  Los  Angeles 


L  007  626  536  2 


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--  UAU 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


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